TLynch

For other uses, see [|**Pompeii** (disambiguation)]. ||  [|Region as classified by UNESCO.] || Pompeii is a ruined and partially buried [|Roman] town-city near modern [|Naples] and [|Caserta] in the [|Italian] region of [|Campania], in the territory of the [|comune] of [|Pompei]. Along with [|Herculaneum], its sister city, **Pompeii** was destroyed, and completely buried, during a long catastrophic eruption of the [|volcano] [|Mount Vesuvius] spanning two days in AD 79. The volcano collapsed higher roof-lines and buried **Pompeii** under many meters of [|ash] and [|pumice], and it was lost for nearly 1700 years before its accidental rediscovery in 1748. Since then, its excavation has provided an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city at the height of the [|Roman Empire]. Today, it is both one of the most popular tourist attractions of [|Italy], with 2,571,725 visitors in 2007,[|[][|1][|]] and a [|UNESCO] [|World Heritage Site]. hide] * [|1] [|Location] 
 * ~ Archaeological Areas of **Pompeii**, [|Herculaneum], and [|Torre Annunziata] * ||
 * ~ [|UNESCO World Heritage Site] ||
 * **Type** || Cultural ||
 * **[|Criteria]** || iii, iv, v ||
 * **Reference** || [|829] ||
 * **Region** || [|Europe and North America] ||
 * [|Coordinates] || [|40°45′04″N 14°29′13″E] [|﻿ /] [|40.751, 14.487]  [|Coordinates]:  [|40°45′04″N 14°29′13″E] [|﻿ /] [|40.751, 14.487]   ||
 * Inscription history ||
 * Inscription || 1997 (21st [|Session]) ||
 * < * [|Name as inscribed on World Heritage List.]
 * ==Contents==
 * [|2] [|History]
 * [|2.1] [|Early history]
 * [|2.2] [|1st century]
 * [|2.3] [|AD 62-79]
 * [|2.4] [|Vesuvius eruption]
 * [|2.5] [|Rediscovery]
 * [|3] [|**Pompeii** today]
 * [|4] [|In popular culture]
 * [|5] [|Issues of conservation]
 * [|6] [|See also]
 * [|7] [|Notes]
 * [|8] [|References]
 * [|9] [|External links] ||

[[|edit]] Location
The ruins of **Pompeii** are situated at coordinates [|40°45′00″N 14°29′10″E] [|﻿ /] [|40.75, 14.48611] , near the modern suburban town of **Pompeii**. It stands on a spur formed by a lava flow to the north of the mouth of the [|Sarno River] (known in ancient times as the Sarnus). Today it is some distance inland, but in ancient times it would have been nearer to the coast. Pompeii and other cities affected by the eruption of [|Mount Vesuvius]. The black cloud represents the general distribution of ash and cinder. Modern coast lines are shown.

[[|edit]] Early history
The archaeological digs at the site extend to the street level of the 79 volcanic event; deeper digs in older parts of **Pompeii** and core samples of nearby drillings have exposed layers of jumbled [|sediment] that suggest that the city had suffered from the volcano and other seismic events before then. Three sheets of sediment have been found on top of the lava bedrock that lies below the city and, mixed in with the sediment, archaeologists have found bits of animal bone, [|pottery shards] and plants. Using [|carbon dating], the oldest layer has been dated to the 8th-6th centuries BC, about the time that the city was founded. The other two layers are separated from the other layers by well-developed soil layers or Roman pavement and were laid in the 4th century BC and 2nd century BC. The theory behind the layers of jumbled sediment is large [|landslides], perhaps triggered by extended rainfall.[|[][|2][|]] The town was founded around the 7th-6th century BC by the [|Osci] or Oscans, a people of central [|Italy], on what was an important crossroad between [|Cumae], [|Nola] and [|Stabiae]. It had already been used as a safe port by [|Greek] and [|Phoenician] sailors. According to [|Strabo], **Pompeii** was also captured by the [|Etruscans], and in fact recent excavations have shown the presence of Etruscan inscriptions and a 6th century necropolis. **Pompeii** was captured a first time by the Greek colony of Cumae, allied with [|Syracuse], between 525 and 474 BC. In the 5th century BC, the [|Samnites] conquered it (and all the other towns of [|Campania]); the new rulers imposed their architecture and enlarged the town. After the [|Samnite Wars] (4th century BC), **Pompeii** was forced to accept the status of //socium// of Rome, maintaining however linguistic and administrative autonomy. In the 4th century BC it was fortified. **Pompeii** remained faithful to Rome during the [|Second Punic War]. It was fed with water by a spur from [|Aqua Augusta (Naples)] built circa 20 BC by [|Agrippa], the main line supplying several other large towns, and finally the naval base at [|Misenum]. The [|castellum] in **Pompeii** is well preserved, and includes many interesting details of the distribution network and its controls. 
 * Pompeii** took part in the war that the towns of Campania initiated against Rome, but in 89 BC it was besieged by [|Sulla]. Although the troops of the [|Social League], headed by [|Lucius Cluentius], helped in resisting the Romans, in 80 BC **Pompeii** was forced to surrender after the conquest of Nola. It became a Roman colony with the name of //Colonia [|Cornelia] [|Veneria] Pompeianorum//. The town became an important passage for goods that arrived by sea and had to be sent toward Rome or [|Southern Italy] along the nearby [|Appian Way]. [|Agriculture], oil and [|wine production] were also important.

[[|edit]] 1st century
The Forum with Vesuvius in the distance Portrait on the wall of a **Pompeii** house Theatro Piccolo (Odeion) Amphitheatre The excavated town offers a snapshot of Roman life in the 1st century, frozen at the moment it was buried on [|24 August] [|79]. [|The Forum], the baths, many houses, and some out-of-town villas like the [|Villa of the Mysteries] remain surprisingly well preserved. Fresco of a Roman woman from **Pompeii**, c. 50 CE. The large number of well-preserved [|frescoes] throw a great light on everyday life and have been a major advance in [|art history] of the ancient world, with the innovation of the [|Pompeian Styles] (First/Second/Third Style). Some aspects of the culture were distinctly [|erotic], including phallic worship. A large collection of erotic votive objects and frescoes were found at **Pompeii**. Many were removed and kept until recently in a secret collection at the University of Naples. At the time of the eruption, the town could have had some 20,000 inhabitants, and was located in an area in which Romans had their holiday villas. Prof. William Abbott explains, "At the time of the eruption, **Pompeii** had reached its high point in society as many Romans frequently visited **Pompeii** on vacations." It is the only ancient town of which the whole topographic structure is known precisely as it was, with no later modifications or additions. It was not distributed on a regular plan as we are used to seeing in Roman towns, due to the difficult terrain. But its streets are straight and laid out in a grid, in the purest Roman tradition; they are laid with polygonal stones, and have houses and shops on both sides of the street. It followed its [|decumanus] and its [|cardo], centered on the forum. Besides the forum, many other services were found: the //[|Macellum]// (great food market), the //[|Pistrinum]// (mill), the //[|Thermopolium]// (sort of bar that served cold and hot beverages), and //[|cauponae]// (small restaurants). An [|amphitheatre] and two theatres have been found, along with a palaestra or [|gymnasium]. A hotel (of 1,000 square metres) was found a short distance from the town; it is now nicknamed the "Grand Hotel Murecine". In 2002 another important discovery at the mouth of the [|Sarno] River revealed that the port also was populated and that people lived in [|palafittes], within a system of channels that suggested a likeness to [|Venice] to some scientists. These studies are just beginning to produce results. 
 * Pompeii** was a lively place, and evidence abounds of literally the smallest details of everyday life. For example, on the floor of one of the houses (Sirico's), a famous inscription //Salve, lucru// (Welcome, money), perhaps humorously intended, shows us a trading company owned by two partners, Sirico and Nummianus (but this could be a nickname, since //nummus// means coin, money). In other houses, details abound concerning professions and categories, such as for the "laundry" workers (//[|Fullones]//). Wine jars have been found bearing what is apparently the world's earliest known marketing pun, //Vesuvinum// (combining Vesuvius and the Latin for wine, vinum). [|Graffiti] carved on the walls shows us real street [|Latin] ([|Vulgar Latin], a different dialect than the literary or classical Latin). In 89 BC, after the final occupation of the city by Roman General [|Lucius Cornelius Sulla], **Pompeii** was finally annexed to the [|Roman Republic]. During this period, **Pompeii** underwent a vast process of infrastructural development, most of which was built during the Augustan period. Worth noting are an [|amphitheatre], a [|Palaestra] with a central [|natatorium] or swimming pool, and an [|aqueduct] that provided water for more than 25 street fountains, at least four public baths, and a large number of private houses ([|domus]) and businesses. The amphitheatre has been cited by modern scholars as a model of sophisticated design particularly in the area of crowd control.[|[][|3][|]] The aqueduct branched out through three main pipes from the [|Castellum Aquae], where the waters were collected before being distributed to the city; although it did much more than distribute the waters, it did so with the prerequisite that in the case of extreme [|drought], the water supply would first fail to reach the public baths (the least vital service), then private houses and businesses, and when there would be no water flow at all, the system would then at last fail to supply the public fountains (the most vital service) in the streets of **Pompeii**.

[[|edit]] AD 62-79
//Main article: [|Mount Vesuvius#Foreshocks]// Cast of a dog that died in **Pompeii** as a result of the eruption of Mt. [|Vesuvius]. Archaeologists believe the dog was chained outside the House of Vesonius Primus, a Pompeiian fuller The inhabitants of **Pompeii**, as those of the area today, had long been used to minor quaking (indeed, the [|writer] [|Pliny the Younger] wrote that earth tremors "were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania"), but on [|February 5], [|62],[|[][|4][|]] there was a severe [|temblor] which did considerable damage around the bay and particularly to **Pompeii**. The earthquake, which took place on the afternoon of February 5, is believed to have registered over 7.5 on the [|Richter scale]. On that day in **Pompeii** there were to be two sacrifices, as it was the anniversary of Augustus being named "Father of the Nation" and also a feast day to honour the guardian spirits of the city. Chaos followed the earthquake. Fires, caused by oil lamps that had fallen during the quake, added to the panic. Nearby cities of Herculaneum and Nuceria were also affected. Temples, houses, bridges, and roads were destroyed. It is believed that almost all buildings in the city of **Pompeii** were affected. In the days after the earthquake, [|anarchy] ruled the city, where theft and starvation plagued the survivors. In the time between 62 and the eruption in 79, some rebuilding was done, but some of the damage had still not been repaired at the time of the eruption.[|[][|5][|]] It is unknown how many people left the city after the earthquake, but a considerable number did indeed leave the devastation behind and move to other cities within the Roman Empire. Those willing to rebuild and take their chances in their beloved city moved back and began the long process of reviving the city. An important field of current research concerns structures that were being restored at the time of the eruption (presumably damaged during the earthquake of 62). Some of the older, damaged, paintings could have been covered with newer ones, and modern instruments are being used to catch a glimpse of the long hidden frescoes. The probable reason why these structures were still being repaired around seventeen years after the earthquake was the increasing frequency of smaller quakes that led up to the eruption. 

[[|edit]] Vesuvius eruption
//Main article: [|Mount Vesuvius]// A computer-generated depiction of the eruption of [|Vesuvius] in 79 which buried **Pompeii** (from [|BBC]'s //[|**Pompeii**: The Last Day]//). The depiction of the [|Temple of Jupiter], facing the forum, and the [|Temple of Apollo], across the portico to the left, are nonetheless inaccurate, and the shown state of the porticoes around the [|forum] is also at least questionable, as they all appear intact during this recreation of the 79 eruption; it is widely known that at least the Temples of Jupiter and Apollo had been destroyed 17 years before, during the 62 earthquake, and that they had not been rebuilt by the time the city was finally destroyed in the 79 eruption By the 1st century, **Pompeii** was one of a number of towns located around the base of Mount Vesuvius. The area had a substantial population which grew prosperous from the region's renowned agricultural fertility. Many of **Pompeii's** neighboring communities, most famously [|Herculaneum], also suffered damage or destruction during the 79 eruption. By coincidence it was the day after [|Vulcanalia], the festival of the Roman god of fire.[|[][|6][|]][|[][|7][|]][|[][|8][|]][|[][|9][|]][|[][|10][|]][|[][|11][|]] The people and buildings of **Pompeii** were covered in up to twelve different layers of soil. [|Pliny the Younger] provides a first-hand account of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius from his position across the [|Bay of Naples] at [|Misenum], in a version which was written 25 years after the event. The experience must have been etched on his memory given the trauma of the occasion, and the loss of his uncle, [|Pliny the Elder], with whom he had a close relationship. His uncle lost his life while attempting to rescue stranded victims. As Admiral of the fleet, he had ordered the ships of the Imperial Navy stationed at Misenum to cross the bay to assist evacuation attempts. Volcanologists have recognised the importance of Pliny the Younger's account of the eruption by calling similar events "Plinian". The eruption was documented by contemporary historians and is universally accepted as having started on [|August 24], [|79], based on one version of Pliny's letter. However the archeological excavations of **Pompeii** suggest that it was buried 2 months later;[|[][|12][|]] this is supported by another version of the letter.[|[][|13][|]] People buried in the ash appear to be wearing warmer clothing than the light summer clothes that would be expected in August. The fresh fruit and vegetables in the shops are typical of October, and conversely the summer fruit that would have been typical of August was already being sold in dried, or conserved form. Wine fermenting jars had been sealed over, and this would have happened around the end of October. The coins found in the purse of a woman buried in the ash include a commemorative coin that should have been minted at the end of September. So far there is no definitive theory as to why there should be such an apparent discrepancy.[|[][|14][|]] 

[[|edit]] Rediscovery
"Garden of the Fugitives". Some plaster casts of victims of the eruption still in actual **Pompeii**; many are in the Archaeological Museum of Naples. (Casts can also be found, amongst other places, near the forum, inside the baths, and at the Villa of the Mysteries.) After thick layers of ash covered the two towns, they were abandoned and eventually their names and locations were forgotten. Then Herculaneum was rediscovered in 1738 by workmen working on the foundation of a summer palace for the King of Naples, [|Charles of Bourbon]. **Pompeii** was rediscovered as the result of intentional excavations in 1748 by the Spanish military engineer [|Rocque Joaquin de Alcubierre].[|[][|15][|]] These towns have since been excavated to reveal many intact buildings and wall paintings. The towns were actually found in 1599 by the architect [|Domenico Fontana], who was digging a new course for the river [|Sarno], but it took more than 150 years before a serious campaign was started to unearth them.[|[][|16][|]] [|Charles of Bourbon] took great interest in the findings even after becoming king of Spain because the display of antiquities reinforced the political and cultural power of Naples.[|[][|17][|]] [|Karl Weber] directed the first real excavations;[|[][|18][|]] he was followed in 1764 by military engineer Franscisco la Vega. Franscisco la Vega was succeeded by his brother, [|Pietro], in 1804.[|[][|19][|]] During the French occupation Pietro worked with Christophe Saliceti.[|[][|20][|]] [|Giuseppe Fiorelli] took charge of the excavations in 1860. During early excavations of the site, occasional voids in the ash layer had been found that contained human remains. It was Fiorelli who realised these were spaces left by the decomposed bodies and so devised the technique of injecting [|plaster] into them to perfectly recreate the forms of Vesuvius's victims. What resulted were highly accurate and eerie forms of the doomed //Pompeiani// who failed to escape, in their last moment of life, with the expression of terror often quite clearly visible ([|[1]], [|[2]], [|[3]]). This technique is still in use today, with [|resin] now used instead of plaster because it is more durable, and does not destroy the bones, allowing further analysis. Some have theorized that Fontana found some of the famous erotic [|frescoes] and, due to the strict modesty prevalent during his time, reburied them in an attempt at archaeological censorship. This view is bolstered by reports of later excavators who felt that sites they were working on had already been visited and reburied. Even many recovered household items had a sexual theme. The ubiquity of such imagery and items indicates that the sexual [|mores] of the [|ancient Roman culture] of the time were much more liberal than most present-day cultures, although much of what might seem to us to be erotic imagery (eg oversized phalluses) was in fact fertility-imagery. This [|clash of cultures] led to an unknown number of discoveries being hidden away again. A wall fresco which depicted [|Priapus], the ancient god of sex and fertility, with his extremely enlarged [|penis], was covered with plaster, even the older reproduction below was locked away "out of prudishness" and only opened on request) and only rediscovered in 1998 due to rainfall [|[][|21][|]]. In 1819, when King [|Francis I of Naples] visited the **Pompeii** exhibition at the [|National Museum] with his wife and daughter, he was so embarrassed by the erotic artwork that he decided to have it locked away in a [|secret cabinet], accessible only to "people of mature age and respected morals". Re-opened, closed, re-opened again and then closed again for nearly 100 years, it was briefly made accessible again at the end of the 1960s (the time of the [|sexual revolution]) and was finally re-opened for viewing in 2000. Minors are still only allowed entry to the once secret cabinet in the presence of a guardian or with written permission.[|[][|22][|]] A large number of [|artifacts] come from **Pompeii** are preserved in the [|Naples National Archaeological Museum]. 

[[|edit]] **Pompeii** today
The Circumvesuviana stop at **Pompeii**, a popular tourist destination. A paved street The ruins can be reached by simply walking from the modern town to the various entrances, there are adequate car parks and the entrances are also accessible to tourists through the train line to the modern town, or else a private train line, the [|Circumvesuviana], that runs directly to the ancient site. Excavations in the site have generally ceased due to the moratorium imposed by the superintendent of the site, Professor Pietro Giovanni Guzzo. Additionally, the site is generally less accessible to tourists, with less than a third of all buildings open in the 1960s being available for public viewing today. Nevertheless, the sections of the ancient city open to the public are extensive, and tourists can spend many days exploring the whole site. 
 * Pompeii** has been a popular tourist destination for centuries (it was on the [|Grand Tour]). In 2008, it was attracting almost 2.6 million visitors per year, making it one of the most popular tourist sites in Italy.[|[][|23][|]] It is part of a larger Vesuvius National Park and was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997. To combat problems associated with tourism, the governing body for **Pompeii**, the Soprintendenza Archaeological di Pompei have begun issuing new tickets that allow for tourists to also visit cities such as [|Herculaneum] and [|Stabiae] as well as the [|Villa Poppaea], to encourage visitors to see these sites and reduce pressure on **Pompeii**.
 * Pompeii** is also a driving force behind the economy of the nearby town of [|Pompei]. Many residents are employed in the tourism and hospitality business, serving as taxi or bus drivers, waiters or hotel operators.

[[|edit]] In popular culture
//Main article: [|**Pompeii** in popular culture]// The song "Cities In Dust" by [|Siouxsie And The Banshees] is a reference to the destruction of **Pompeii**. 
 * Pompeii** has been in pop culture significantly since rediscovery. Book I of the [|Cambridge Latin Course] teaches Latin while telling the story of a **Pompeii** resident, Lucius Caecilius Iucundus, from the reign of Nero to that of Vespasian. The book ends when Mount Vesuvius erupts, where Caecilius and his household are killed. The books have a [|cult following] and students have been known to go to **Pompeii** just to track down Caecilius's house.[|[][|24][|]] It was the setting for the British comedy [|television series] //[|Up **Pompeii**!]// and the movie of the series. **Pompeii** also featured in the second episode of the fourth season of revived BBC drama series //[|Doctor Who]//, named "[|The Fires of **Pompeii**]". [|[][|25][|]]

[[|edit]] Issues of conservation
//Main article: [|Conservation Issues of **Pompeii** and Herculaneum]// Fencing in the temple of [|Venus] prevents vandalism of the site, as well as theft. The objects buried beneath **Pompeii** were remarkably well-preserved for almost two thousand years. The lack of air and moisture allowed for the objects to remain underground with little to no deterioration, which meant that, once excavated, the site had a wealth of sources and evidence for analysis, giving remarkable detail into the lives of the Pompeiians. Unfortunately, once exposed, **Pompeii** has been subject to both natural and man-made forces which have rapidly increased their rate of deterioration. Weathering, erosion, light exposure, water damage, poor methods of excavation and reconstruction, introduced plants and animals, tourism, vandalism and theft have all damaged the site in some way. Two-thirds of the city has been excavated, but the remnants of the city are rapidly deteriorating. The concern for conservation has continually troubled archaeologists. Today, funding is mostly directed into conservation of the site; however, due to the expanse of **Pompeii** and the scale of the problems, this is inadequate in halting the slow decay of the materials. An estimated US$335 million is needed for all necessary work on **Pompeii**. [|Karl Brullov], //[|The Last Day of **Pompeii**]// (1830-33) [|Wikimedia Commons] has media related to: //**[|**Pompeii**]**//

[[|edit]] See also

 * [|Aqua Augusta (Naples)]
 * [|Roman aqueducts]
 * [|Erotic art in **Pompeii** and Herculaneum]
 * [|**Pompeii**: The Last Day]
 * [|The Fires of **Pompeii**]
 * [|House of the Faun]
 * [|House of the Vettii]
 * [|Villa of the Mysteries]
 * [|Mount Pelée] (similar destructive eruption at [|Martinique] in 1902)
 * [|Armero tragedy]; a city in [|Colombia] that suffered the same fate
 * [|House of Julia Felix]
 * [|Robert Rive], 1850s photographer of **Pompeii**
 * [|Plymouth, Montserrat], a city buried by a volcano in more recent times

[[|edit]] Notes

 * 1) **[|^]** [|Dossier Musei 2008 - Touring Club Italiano]
 * 2) **[|^]** Senatore, //et al.//, 2004
 * 3) **[|^]** [|Crowd Control in Ancient **Pompeii**]
 * 4) **[|^]** [|http://www.iath.virginia.edu/struct/**pompeii**/patterns/sec-02.html]
 * 5) **[|^]** [|http://www.archaeology.co.uk/cwa/issues/cwa4/**pompeii**/eruption.htm]
 * 6) **[|^]** [|Area Vesuvio] (in Italian) Retrieved on 18 August 2007
 * 7) **[|^]** [|Account of 1785 eruption] by [|Hester Thrale]
 * 8) **[|^]** [|Stromboli Online - Vesuvius & Campi Flegrei]
 * 9) **[|^]** [|Visiting **Pompeii**] Retrieved on 18 August 2007
 * 10) **[|^]** [|Wall painting of Vesuvius found in **Pompeii**]
 * 11) **[|^]** "[|The Destruction of **Pompeii**, 79 AD]". //Eyewitness to History//. Retrieved on 2006-12-08.
 * 12) **[|^]** Gabi Laske. "[|The A.D. 79 Eruption at Mt. Vesuvius]". //Lecture notes for UCSD-ERTH15: "Natural Disasters"//. Retrieved on 2008-07-28.
 * 13) **[|^]** Stefani, Grete, "La vera data dell'eruzione", //Archeo//, October 2006, pp. 10-14.)
 * 14) **[|^]** Grete Stefani (October 2006). "La vera data dell'eruzione". //Archeo// (260): 10–14. [|doi]: [|10.1002/9780470750865] .   (in Italian)
 * 15) **[|^]** Ozgenel, Lalo, [|//A Tale of Two Cities: In Search of Ancient **Pompeii** and Herculaneum//], METU JFA 2008/1 (25:1), p1-25
 * 16) **[|^]** ([|Ozgenel 2008], p. 13)
 * 17) **[|^]** ([|Ozogenel 2008], p. 19)
 * 18) **[|^]** Parslow, Christopher Charles (1995) //Rediscovering antiquity: Karl Weber and the excavation of Herculaneum, **Pompeii**, and Stabiae// Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, [|ISBN 0-521-47150-8]
 * 19) **[|^]** *Pagano, Mario (1997) //I Diari di Scavo di **Pompeii**, Ercolano e Stabiae di Francesco e Pietro la Vega (1764-1810)// "L'Erma" di Bretschneidein, Rome, [|ISBN 88-7062-967-8] (in Italian)
 * 20) **[|^]** [|//POMPEIA// d'Ernest Breton (3eme éd. 1870) "Introduction - La résurrection de la ville"] in French
 * 21) **[|^]** As reported by the //Evangelist pressedienst// press agency in March, 1998.
 * 22) **[|^]** [|Karl Schefold] (2003), //Die Dichtung als Führerin zur Klassischen Kunst. Erinnerungen eines Archäologen// (Lebenserinnerungen Band 58), edd. M. Rohde-Liegle et al., Hamburg. p. 134 [|ISBN 3-8300-1017-6].
 * 23) **[|^]** Nadeau, Barbie [|//Selling **Pompeii**//], Newsweek, April 14, 2008
 * 24) **[|^]** [|Classics at RGSW]
 * 25) **[|^]** [|BBC - Doctor Who - News - Rome Sweet Rome]

[[|edit]] References

 * Zarmati, Louise (2005). //[|Heinemann ancient and medieval history: **Pompeii** and Herculaneum]//. [|Heinemann]. [|ISBN 1-74081-195-X].
 * Butterworth, Alex and Ray Laurence. //**Pompeii**: The Living City.// New York: St. Martin's Press, 2005. [|ISBN 978-0-312-35585-2]
 * Ellis, Steven J.R., 'The distribution of bars at **Pompeii**: archaeological, spatial and viewshed analyses' in: //Journal of Roman Archaeology// 17, 2004, 371-384.
 * Senatore, M.R., J.-D. Stanley, and T.S. Pescatore. 2004. Avalanche-associated mass flows damaged **Pompeii** several times before the Vesuvius catastrophic eruption in the 79 C.E. //Geological Society of America meeting.// Nov. 7-10. Denver. [|Abstract].
 * Maiuri, Amedeo, //**Pompeii**//, pp, 78-85, in Scientific American, //Special Issue: Ancient Cities//, c. 1994.
 * Cioni, R.; Gurioli, L.; Lanza, R.; Zanella, E. (2004). "Temperatures of the A.D. 79 pyroclastic density current deposits (Vesuvius, Italy)". //Journal of Geophysical Research-Solid Earth// **109**: B02207. [|doi]: [|10.1029/2002JB002251].
 * Hodge, A.T. (2001). //Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply//, 2nd ed. London: Duckworth.

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 * ~ [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png width="23" height="27" link="http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Pompeii"]] || [|Quotations] ||
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 * ~ [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png width="18" height="24" link="http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Pompeii"]] || [|Images and media] ||
 * ~ [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png width="27" height="15" link="http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Pompeii"]] || [|News stories] ||
 * ~ [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg/27px-Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg.png width="27" height="24" link="http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Pompeii"]] || [|Learning resources] ||
 * [|**Pompeii** official web site]
 * [|Pompeiana.org - a website devoted to the archaeology of **Pompeii**]
 * [|**Pompeii** Archaeological Research Project: Porta Stabia]
 * [|**Pompeii** Digital Media Archive] ([|creative commons]-licensed photos, laser scans, panoramas), centered on the Forum area with data from a [|University of Ferrara]/[|CyArk] research partnership
 * [|Patterns of reconstruction at **Pompeii**]
 * [|Current Archaeology article, Visiting **Pompeii**]
 * [|The Annals by Publius Cornelius Tacitus]
 * [|Another translation, and comments on Pliny the Elder's death, at UCSB's The Volcano Information Center website]
 * [|**Pompeii** at University of Minnesota's Emuseum]
 * [|Photo Journal of **Pompeii's** Excavated Brick Ovens]
 * [|The Wonders of **Pompeii**], by Marc Monnier, 1871, from [|Project Gutenberg]
 * [|Extensive **Pompeii** photo library]
 * The History Files [|Gallery: The Ruins of **Pompeii**]


 * ||||||~ [|v] • [|d] • [|e] [|World Heritage Sites] in [|Italy] ||
 * //For official site names, see each article or the [|List of World Heritage Sites in Italy].// ||
 * [|Aeolian Islands] **·** [|Aquileia] **·** [|Archaeological Area of Agrigento] **·** Pompeii, [|Herculaneum], [|Torre Annunziata] **·** [|Botanical Garden, Padua] **·** [|Caserta Palace], [|Aqueduct of Vanvitelli], [|San Leucio Complex] **·** [|Castel del Monte] **·** [|Cilento and Vallo di Diano], [|Paestum], [|Velia], [|Certosa di Padula] **·** [|Amalfi Coast] **·** [|Crespi d'Adda] **·** [|Ravenna] **·** [|Cerveteri], [|Tarquinia] **·** [|Ferrara] **·** [|Florence] **·** [|Assisi] **·** [|Matera] **·** [|Cathedral], [|Torre Civica], [|Piazza Grande, Modena] **·** [|Naples] **·** [|Genoa] **·** [|Mantua] **·** [|Piazza del Duomo, Pisa] **·** [|Pienza] **·** [|Portovenere], [|Cinque Terre] ([|Monterosso al Mare], [|Vernazza], [|Corniglia], [|Manarola], [|Riomaggiore]), [|Palmaria], [|Tino], [|Tinetto] **·** [|Residences of the Royal House of Savoy] **·** [|Rock Drawings in Valcamonica] **·** [|Rome] 1 **·** [|Sabbioneta] **·** [|//Sacri Monti// of Piedmont and Lombardy] **·** [|San Gimignano] **·** [|Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan] **·** [|Val di Noto] ([|Caltagirone], [|Militello in Val di Catania], [|Catania], [|Modica], [|Noto], [|Palazzolo Acreide], [|Ragusa], [|Scicli]) **·** [|Siena] **·** [|Barumini nuraghes] **·** [|Syracuse], [|Necropolis of Pantalica] **·** [|Alberobello] **·** [|Urbino] **·** [|Val d'Orcia] **·** [|Venice] **·** [|Verona] **·** [|Vicenza], [|Palladian Villas of the Veneto] **·** [|Hadrian's Villa] **·** [|Villa d'Este] **·** [|Villa Romana del Casale] || [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/64px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png width="64" height="43" caption="Flag of Italy" link="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Italy.svg"]] ||
 * 1 Shared with the [|Holy See]. ||  ||
 * [|Aeolian Islands] **·** [|Aquileia] **·** [|Archaeological Area of Agrigento] **·** Pompeii, [|Herculaneum], [|Torre Annunziata] **·** [|Botanical Garden, Padua] **·** [|Caserta Palace], [|Aqueduct of Vanvitelli], [|San Leucio Complex] **·** [|Castel del Monte] **·** [|Cilento and Vallo di Diano], [|Paestum], [|Velia], [|Certosa di Padula] **·** [|Amalfi Coast] **·** [|Crespi d'Adda] **·** [|Ravenna] **·** [|Cerveteri], [|Tarquinia] **·** [|Ferrara] **·** [|Florence] **·** [|Assisi] **·** [|Matera] **·** [|Cathedral], [|Torre Civica], [|Piazza Grande, Modena] **·** [|Naples] **·** [|Genoa] **·** [|Mantua] **·** [|Piazza del Duomo, Pisa] **·** [|Pienza] **·** [|Portovenere], [|Cinque Terre] ([|Monterosso al Mare], [|Vernazza], [|Corniglia], [|Manarola], [|Riomaggiore]), [|Palmaria], [|Tino], [|Tinetto] **·** [|Residences of the Royal House of Savoy] **·** [|Rock Drawings in Valcamonica] **·** [|Rome] 1 **·** [|Sabbioneta] **·** [|//Sacri Monti// of Piedmont and Lombardy] **·** [|San Gimignano] **·** [|Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan] **·** [|Val di Noto] ([|Caltagirone], [|Militello in Val di Catania], [|Catania], [|Modica], [|Noto], [|Palazzolo Acreide], [|Ragusa], [|Scicli]) **·** [|Siena] **·** [|Barumini nuraghes] **·** [|Syracuse], [|Necropolis of Pantalica] **·** [|Alberobello] **·** [|Urbino] **·** [|Val d'Orcia] **·** [|Venice] **·** [|Verona] **·** [|Vicenza], [|Palladian Villas of the Veneto] **·** [|Hadrian's Villa] **·** [|Villa d'Este] **·** [|Villa Romana del Casale] || [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/64px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png width="64" height="43" caption="Flag of Italy" link="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Italy.svg"]] ||
 * 1 Shared with the [|Holy See]. ||  ||
 * 1 Shared with the [|Holy See]. ||  ||

Retrieved from "[|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/**Pompeii**]"[|Categories]: [|World Heritage Sites in Italy] | [|Ancient cities] | [|Archaeological sites in Italy] | [|Destroyed cities] | [|**Pompeii** (ancient city)] | [|Roman Empire paintings] | [|Roman sites of Campania] | [|Settlements established in the 1st millennium BC]

This article is part of the series: [|753 BC] – [|509 BC] [|509 BC] – [|27 BC] [|27 BC] – [|AD 476] || **[|Principate] [|Western Empire]** || **[|Dominate] [|Eastern Empire]** ||  || [|Senate] [|Legislative Assemblies] [|Executive Magistrates] ||  ||   || [|Praetor] [|Quaestor] [|Promagistrate] || [|Aedile] [|Tribune] [|Censor] [|Governor] ||  || [|Magister Equitum] [|Consular tribune] || [|Rex] [|Triumviri] [|Decemviri] ||  || [|Dux] [|Officium] [|Praefectus] [|Vicarius] [|Vigintisexviri] [|Lictor] || [|Magister Militum] [|Imperator] [|Princeps senatus] [|Pontifex Maximus] [|Augustus] [|Caesar] [|Tetrarch] ||  || [|Mos maiorum] [|Collegiality] || [|Roman citizenship] [|Auctoritas] [|Cursus honorum] ||  ||   || [|Other countries] **·** [|Atlas] [|view] • [|talk] • [|edit] || Ancient Rome was a [|civilization] that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the [|Italian Peninsula] as early as the 10th century BC. Located along the [|Mediterranean Sea], it became one of the largest [|empires] in history.[|[][|1][|]] In its centuries of existence, Roman civilization shifted from a [|monarchy] to an [|oligarchic] [|republic] to an increasingly [|autocratic] [|empire]. It came to dominate [|Western Europe] and the Mediterranean region through [|conquest] and [|assimilation]. The Western [|Roman Empire] went into decline and disappeared in the 5th century AD. [|Plagued by internal instability] and [|attacked by various migrating peoples], the [|western part of the empire], including [|Hispania], [|Gaul], [|Britannia] and [|Italy], broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. The [|eastern part of the empire], governed from [|Constantinople], comprising [|Greece], [|Anatolia], [|Syria] and [|Egypt], survived this crisis, and despite the loss of Syria and Egypt to the [|Arab] [|Islamic] Empire, revived and would live on for another millennium, until its last remains were finally annexed by the emerging [|Turkish] [|Ottoman Empire]. This eastern, Christian, [|medieval] stage of the Empire is usually referred to as the [|Byzantine Empire] by historians. Roman civilization is often grouped into "[|classical antiquity]" with [|**ancient** Greece], a civilization that inspired much of the [|culture of **ancient** **Rome**]. **Ancient** **Rome** contributed greatly to the development of [|law], [|war], [|art], [|literature], [|architecture], [|technology] and [|language] in the [|Western world], and its [|history] continues to have a major influence on the world today. hide] * [|1] [|History] 
 * = **Ancient** **Rome** ||
 * = [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg/150px-Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg.png width="150" height="210" link="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg"]]
 * [|Politics and government of**Ancient** **Rome**]** ||
 * ~ Periods ||
 * **[|Roman Kingdom]**
 * **[|Roman Kingdom]**
 * [|Roman Republic]**
 * [|Roman Empire]**
 * ~ [|Roman Constitution] ||
 * **[|Constitution of the Kingdom]**
 * [|Constitution of the Republic]**
 * [|Constitution of the Empire]**
 * [|Constitution of the Late Empire]**
 * [|History of the Constitution]**
 * ~ Ordinary Magistrates ||
 * =  || [|Consul]
 * ~ Extraordinary Magistrates ||
 * =  || [|Dictator]
 * ~ Titles and Honours ||
 * = [|Emperor] || [|Legatus]
 * ~ [|Precedent and Law] ||
 * =  ||= [|Roman Law] || [|Imperium]
 * [|Politics portal]**
 * ==Contents==
 * [|1.1] [|Founding and Kingdom]
 * [|1.2] [|Republic]
 * [|1.3] [|Empire]
 * [|2] [|Society]
 * [|2.1] [|Class structure]
 * [|2.2] [|Family]
 * [|2.3] [|Education]
 * [|2.4] [|Government]
 * [|2.5] [|Law]
 * [|2.6] [|Economy]
 * [|2.7] [|Military]
 * [|3] [|Culture]
 * [|3.1] [|Language]
 * [|3.2] [|Religion]
 * [|3.3] [|Art, music and literature]
 * [|3.4] [|Scholarly studies]
 * [|3.5] [|Games and activities]
 * [|4] [|Roman Technological Achievements]
 * [|5] [|See also]
 * [|6] [|Notes]
 * [|7] [|References]
 * [|8] [|Further reading]
 * [|9] [|External links] ||

Founding and Kingdom
//Main article: [|Roman Kingdom]// According to legend, [|**Rome** was founded] in 753 BC by [|Romulus and Remus], who were raised by a she-wolf. According to [|legend], **Rome** was [|founded] on April 21, 753 BC by twin brothers descended from the [|Trojan] prince [|Aeneas].[|[][|2][|]] Rhea Silvia was a [|Vestal Virgin] who was raped by [|Mars], making the twins [|half-divine]. The new king feared that Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, so they were to be drowned.[|[][|4][|]] A she-wolf (or a shepherd's wife in some accounts) saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor.[|[][|5][|]][|[][|6][|]] The twins then founded their own city, but Romulus killed Remus in a quarrel over which one of them was to reign as the [|King of **Rome**], though some sources state the quarrel was about who was going to give their name to the city.[|[][|7][|]] Romulus became the source of the city's name.[|[][|8][|]] As the city was bereft of women, legend says that the Latins invited the [|Sabines] to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins and the Sabines.[|[][|9][|]] The city of [|**Rome**] grew from settlements around a ford on the river [|Tiber], a crossroads of traffic and trade.[|[][|5][|]] According to [|archaeological] evidence, the village of **Rome** was probably founded sometime in the 8th century BC, though it may go back as far as the 10th century BC, by members of the [|Latin tribe] of Italy, on the top of the [|Palatine Hill].[|[][|10][|]][|[][|11][|]] The [|Etruscans], who had previously settled to the north in [|Etruria], seem to have established political control in the region by the late 7th century BC, forming the aristocratic and monarchial elite. The Etruscans apparently lost power in the area by the late 6th century BC, and at this point, the original Latin and Sabine tribes reinvented their government by creating a [|republic], with much greater restraints on the ability of rulers to exercise power.[|[][|12][|]] Roman tradition, as well as archaeological evidence, points to a complex within the [|Forum Romanum] as the seat of power for the king and the beginnings of the religious center there as well. [|Numa Pompilius] was the second [|king of **Rome**], succeeding [|Romulus]. He began **Rome's** great building projects with his royal palace the [|Regia] and the complex of the [|Vestal virgins]. 
 * [|Romulus]** and **[|Remus]** are the grandsons of the Latin King, [|Numitor] of [|Alba Longa]. The King was ejected from his throne by his cruel brother [|Amulius] while Numitor's daughter, [|Rhea Silvia], gave birth.[|[][|3][|]][|[][|4][|]]

Republic
//Main article: [|Roman Republic]// The [|Roman Republic] was established around 509 BC, according to later writers such as [|Livy], when the last of the seven kings of **Rome**, [|Tarquin the Proud], was deposed, and a system based on annually elected [|magistrates] and various representative assemblies was established.[|[][|13][|]] A [|constitution] set a series of checks and balances, and a separation of powers. The most important magistrates were the two [|consuls], who together exercised executive authority in the form of //[|imperium]//, or military command.[|[][|14][|]] The consuls had to work with the [|senate], which was initially an advisory council of the ranking nobility, or [|patricians], but grew in size and power over time.[|[][|15][|]] Other magistracies in the Republic include [|praetors], [|aediles], and [|quaestors].[|[][|16][|]] The magistracies were originally restricted to patricians, but were later opened to common people, or [|plebeians].[|[][|16][|]] Republican voting assemblies included the //comitia centuriata// (centuriate assembly), which voted on matters of war and peace and elected men to the most important offices, and the //comitia tributa// (tribal assembly), which elected less important offices.[|[][|17][|]] The Romans gradually subdued the other peoples on the Italian peninsula, including the [|Etruscans].[|[][|18][|]] The last threat to Roman [|hegemony] in Italy came when [|Tarentum], a major [|Greek] colony, enlisted the aid of [|Pyrrhus of Epirus] in 281 BC, but this effort failed as well.[|[][|19][|]][|[][|20][|]] The Romans secured their conquests by founding Roman colonies in strategic areas, establishing stable control over the region.[|[][|21][|]] In the second half of the 3rd century BC, **Rome** clashed with [|Carthage] in the first of three [|Punic Wars]. These wars resulted in **Rome's** first overseas conquests, of [|Sicily] and [|Hispania], and the rise of **Rome** as a significant imperial power.[|[][|22][|]][|[][|23][|]] After defeating the [|Macedonian] and [|Seleucid Empires] in the 2nd century BC, the Romans became the dominant people of the [|Mediterranean Sea].[|[][|24][|]][|[][|25][|]] [|Gaius Marius], a Roman general and politician who dramatically reformed the [|Roman military]. Foreign dominance led to internal strife. Senators became rich at the [|provinces]' expense, but soldiers, who were mostly small-scale farmers, were away from home longer and could not maintain their land, and the increased reliance on foreign [|slaves] and the growth of //[|latifundia]// reduced the availability of paid work.[|[][|26][|]][|[][|27][|]] Income from war booty, [|mercantilism] in the new provinces, and [|tax farming] created new economic opportunities for the wealthy, forming a new class of [|merchants], the [|equestrians].[|[][|28][|]] The //[|lex Claudia]// forbade members of the Senate from engaging in commerce, so while the equestrians could theoretically join the Senate, they were severely restricted in terms of political power.[|[][|29][|]][|[][|28][|]] The Senate squabbled perpetually, repeatedly blocking important [|land reforms] and refusing to give the equestrian class a larger say in the government. Violent gangs of the urban unemployed, controlled by rival Senators, intimidated the electorate through violence. The situation came to a head in the late 2nd century BC under the [|Gracchi] brothers, a pair of [|tribunes] who attempted to pass land reform legislation that would redistribute the major patrician landholdings among the plebeians. Both brothers were killed, but the Senate passed some of their reforms in an attempt to placate the growing unrest of the plebeian and equestrian classes. The denial of [|Roman citizenship] to allied Italian cities led to the [|Social War] of 91–88 BC.[|[][|30][|]] The military reforms of [|Gaius Marius] resulted in soldiers often having more loyalty to their commander than to the city, and a powerful general could hold the city and Senate ransom.[|[][|31][|]] This led to civil war between Marius and his protegé [|Sulla], and culminated in Sulla's [|dictatorship] of 81–79 BC.[|[][|32][|]] In the mid-1st century BC, three men, [|Julius Caesar], [|Pompey], and [|Crassus], formed a secret pact—the [|First Triumvirate]—to control the Republic. After Caesar's [|conquest of Gaul], a stand-off between Caesar and the Senate led to [|civil war], with Pompey leading the Senate's forces. Caesar emerged victorious, and was made [|dictator] for life.[|[][|33][|]] In 44 BC, Caesar was [|assassinated] by senators who opposed Caesar's assumption of absolute power and wanted to restore constitutional government, but in the aftermath a [|Second Triumvirate], consisting of Caesar's designated heir, [|Octavian], and his former supporters, [|Mark Antony] and [|Lepidus], took power.[|[][|34][|]][|[][|35][|]] However, this alliance soon descended into a struggle for dominance. Lepidus was [|exiled], and when Octavian defeated Antony and [|Cleopatra] of [|Egypt] at the [|Battle of Actium] in 31 BC, he became the undisputed ruler of **Rome**.[|[][|36][|]] 

Empire
//Main article: [|Roman Empire]// With his enemies defeated, Octavian took the name //Augustus// and assumed almost absolute power, retaining only a pretense of the Republican form of government.[|[][|37][|]] His designated successor, [|Tiberius], took power without serious opposition, establishing the [|Julio-Claudian dynasty], which lasted until the death of [|Nero] in 68.[|[][|38][|]] The territorial expansion of what was now the [|Roman Empire] continued, and the state remained secure,[|[][|39][|]] despite a series of emperors widely viewed as depraved and corrupt (for example, [|Caligula] is argued by some to have been insane and [|Nero] had a reputation for cruelty and being more interested in his private concerns than the affairs of the state[|[][|40][|]]). Their rule was followed by the [|Flavian dynasty].[|[][|41][|]] During the reign of the "[|Five Good Emperors]" (96–180), the Empire reached its territorial, economic, and cultural [|zenith].[|[][|42][|]] The state was secure from both internal and external threats, and the Empire prospered during the [|Pax Romana] ("Roman Peace").[|[][|43][|]][|[][|44][|]] With the conquest of [|Dacia] during the reign of [|Trajan], the Empire reached the peak of its territorial expansion; **Rome's** dominion now spanned 2.5 million square miles (6.5 million km²).[|[][|45][|]] The [|Roman Empire] at its greatest extent under [|Trajan] in AD 117. The period between 193 and 235 was dominated by the [|Severan dynasty], and saw several incompetent rulers, such as [|Elagabalus].[|[][|46][|]] This and the increasing influence of the army on imperial succession led to a long period of imperial collapse and external invasions known as the [|Crisis of the Third Century].[|[][|47][|]][|[][|48][|]] The crisis was ended by the more competent rule of [|Diocletian], who in 293 divided the Empire into an eastern and western half ruled by a [|tetrarchy] of two co-emperors and their two junior colleagues.[|[][|49][|]] The various co-rulers of the Empire competed and fought for supremacy for more than half a century. On May 11, 330, Emperor [|Constantine I] firmly established [|Byzantium] as the capital of the [|Roman Empire] and renamed it [|Constantinople].[|[][|50][|]] The Empire was permanently divided into the Eastern Roman Empire (later known as the [|Byzantine Empire]) and the [|Western Roman Empire] in 395.[|[][|51][|]] The Western Empire was constantly harassed by [|barbarian] invasions, and the gradual [|decline of the western Empire] continued over the centuries.[|[][|52][|]] In the 4th century, the westward migration of the [|Huns] caused the [|Visigoths] to seek refuge within the borders of the Roman Empire.[|[][|53][|]] In 410, the [|Visigoths], under the leadership of [|Alaric I], sacked the city of **Rome** itself.[|[][|54][|]] The [|Vandals] invaded Roman provinces in Gaul, Spain, and northern Africa, and in 455 [|sacked **Rome**].[|[][|55][|]] On September 4, 476, the Germanic chief [|Odoacer] forced the last Roman emperor in the west, [|Romulus Augustus], to abdicate.[|[][|56][|]] Having lasted for approximately 1200 years, the rule of **Rome** in the [|West] came to an end.[|[][|57][|]] The Eastern Empire, by contrast, would suffer a similar fate, though not as drastic. [|Justinian] managed to briefly reconquer [|Northern Africa] and [|Italy], but Byzantine possessions in the West were reduced to southern Italy and [|Sicily] within a few years after Justinian's death.[|[][|58][|]] In the east, partially resulting from the destructive [|Plague of Justinian], the Byzantines were threatened by the rise of [|Islam], whose followers rapidly conquered territories in [|Syria] and [|Egypt] and soon presented a direct threat to Constantinople.[|[][|59][|]][|[][|60][|]] The Byzantines, however, managed to stop Islamic expansion into their lands during the 8th century, and beginning in the 9th century reclaimed parts of the conquered lands.[|[][|61][|]][|[][|59][|]] In 1000 AD the Eastern Empire was at its height: [|Basileios II] reconquered Bulgaria and Armenia, culture and trade flourished.[|[][|62][|]] However, soon after the expansion was abruptly stopped in 1071 at the [|Battle of Manzikert]. This finally lead the empire into a dramatic decline. Several centuries of internal strife and [|Turkic] invasions ultimately paved the way for Emperor [|Alexius I Comnenus] to send a call for help to the West in 1095.[|[][|59][|]] The West responded with the [|Crusades], eventually resulting in the [|Sack of Constantinople] by participants in the [|Fourth Crusade]. The conquest of Constantinople in 1204 would see the fragmentation of what little remained of the empire into successor states, the ultimate victor being that of [|Nicaea].[|[][|63][|]] After the recapture of Constantinople by imperial forces, the empire was little more than a Greek state confined to the [|Aegean] coast. The Eastern Empire came to an end when [|Mehmed II] conquered Constantinople on May 29, 1453.[|[][|64][|]] 

Society
The imperial city of **Rome** was the largest urban center of its time, with a population of about one million people (about the size of London in the early 19th century, when London was the largest city in the world), with some high-end estimates of 14 million and low-end estimates of 450,000.[|[][|65][|]][|[][|66][|]][|[][|67][|]] The public spaces in **Rome** resounded with such a din of hooves and clatter of iron [|chariot] wheels that [|Julius Caesar] had once proposed a ban on chariot traffic during the day. Historical estimates indicate that around 20 percent of the population under jurisdiction of **ancient** **Rome** (25–40%, depending on the standards used, in Roman Italy[|[][|68][|]]) lived in innumerable urban centers, with population of 10,000 and more and several military settlements, a very high rate of urbanization by pre-industrial standards. Most of these centers had a [|forum] and temples and same type of buildings, on a smaller scale, as found in **Rome**. 
 * [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Hw-caesar.png/17px-Hw-caesar.png width="17" height="27" link="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Hw-caesar.png"]] || //**[|**Ancient** **Rome** portal]**// ||

Class structure
//Main article: [|Social class in **ancient** **Rome**]// Area under Roman control  [|Roman Republic]  [|Roman Empire]  [|Western Empire]  [|Eastern Empire]  Inheriting countries of the [|Byzantine Empire] Roman society is largely viewed as [|hierarchical], with [|slaves] (//servi//) at the bottom, [|freedmen] (//liberti//) above them, and free-born citizens (//cives//) at the top. Free citizens were themselves also divided by class. The broadest, and earliest, division was between the [|patricians], who could trace their ancestry to one of the 100 [|Patriarchs] at the founding of the city, and the [|plebeians], who could not. This became less important in the later Republic, as some plebeian families became wealthy and entered politics, and some patrician families fell on hard times. Anyone, patrician or plebeian, who could count a consul as his ancestor was a [|noble] (//nobilis//); a man who was the first of his family to hold the consulship, such as [|Marius] or [|Cicero], was known as a //[|novus homo]// ("new man") and ennobled his descendants. Patrician ancestry, however, still conferred considerable prestige, and many religious offices remained restricted to patricians. A class division originally based on military service became more important. Membership of these classes was determined periodically by the [|Censors], according to property. The wealthiest were the Senatorial class, who dominated politics and command of the army. Next came the [|equestrians] (//equites//, sometimes translated "knights"), originally those who could afford a warhorse, who formed a powerful mercantile class. Several further classes, originally based on what military equipment their members could afford, followed, with the //proletarii//, citizens who had no property at all, at the bottom. Before the reforms of Marius they were ineligible for military service and are often described as being just barely above freed slaves in terms of wealth and prestige. Voting power in the Republic was dependent on class. Citizens were enrolled in voting "tribes", but the tribes of the richer classes had fewer members than the poorer ones, all the //proletarii// being enrolled in a single tribe. Voting was done in class order and stopped as soon as a majority of the tribes had been reached, so the poorer classes were often unable even to cast their votes. Allied foreign cities were often given the [|Latin Right], an intermediary level between full citizens and foreigners (//peregrini//), which gave their citizens rights under Roman law and allowed their leading magistrates to become full Roman citizens. While there were varying degrees of Latin rights, the main division was between those //cum suffragio// ("with vote"; enrolled in a Roman tribe and able to take part in the //comitia tributa//) and //sine suffragio// ("without vote"; unable to take part in Roman politics). Some of **Rome's** Italian allies were given full citizenship after the [|Social War] of 91–88 BC, and full [|Roman citizenship] was extended to all free-born men in the Empire by [|Caracalla] in 212. Women shared some basic rights with their male counterparts, but were not fully regarded as citizens and were thus not allowed to vote or participate in politics. 

Family
A group portrait depicted on glass, dating from c.250 A.D., showing a mother, son and daughter. It was once considered to be a depiction of the family of [|Valentinian III]. The basic units of Roman society were [|households] and [|families].[|[][|69][|]] Households included the head (usually the father) of the household, //[|pater familias]// (father of the family), his wife, children, and other relatives. In the upper classes, slaves and servants were also part of the household.[|[][|69][|]] The head of the household had great power (//patria potestas//, "father's power") over those living with him: He could force marriage (usually for money) and divorce, sell his children into slavery, claim his dependents' property as his own, and even had the right to punish or kill family members (though this last right apparently ceased to be exercised after the 1st century BC).[|[][|70][|]] //Patria potestas// even extended over adult sons with their own households: A man was not considered a //paterfamilias//, nor could he truly hold property, while his own father lived.[|[][|70][|]][|[][|71][|]] During the early period of **Rome's** history, a daughter, when she married, fell under the control (//manus//) of the //paterfamilias// of her husband's household, although by the late Republic this fell out of fashion, as a woman could choose to continue recognizing her father's family as her true family.[|[][|72][|]] However, as Romans reckoned [|descent] through the male line, any children she had would belong to her husband's family.[|[][|73][|]] Groups of related households formed a family (//[|gens]//). Families were based on blood ties or [|adoption], but were also political and economic alliances. Especially during the [|Roman Republic], some powerful families, or //[|Gentes Maiores]//, came to dominate political life. [|**Ancient** Roman marriage] was often regarded more as a financial and political alliance than as a romantic association, especially in the upper classes. Fathers usually began seeking husbands for their daughters when they reached an age between twelve and fourteen. The husband was almost always older than the bride. While upper class girls married very young, there is evidence that lower class women often married in their late teens or early twenties. 

Education
//Main article: [|Roman school]// In the early Republic, there were no public schools, so boys were taught to read and write by their parents, or by educated [|slaves], called //[|paedagogi]//, usually of Greek origin.[|[][|74][|]][|[][|75][|]][|[][|76][|]] The primary aim of education during this period was to train young men in [|agriculture], [|warfare], [|Roman traditions], and public affairs.[|[][|74][|]] Young boys learnt much about civic life by accompanying their fathers to religious and political functions, including the Senate for the sons of nobles.[|[][|75][|]] The sons of nobles were apprenticed to a prominent political figure at the age of 16, and campaigned with the army from the age of 17 (this system would still be in use among some noble families well into the imperial era).[|[][|75][|]] Educational practices were modified following the conquest of the Hellenistic kingdoms in the 3rd century BC and the resulting Greek influence, although it should be noted that Roman educational practices were still significantly different from Greek ones.[|[][|77][|]][|[][|75][|]] If their parents could afford it, boys and some girls at the age of 7 were sent to a private school outside the home called a //[|ludus]//, where a teacher (called a //litterator// or a [|//magister ludi//], and often of Greek origin) taught them basic reading, writing, arithmetic, and sometimes Greek, until the age of 11.[|[][|78][|]][|[][|75][|]][|[][|76][|]] Beginning at age 12, students went to secondary schools, where the teacher (now called a //grammaticus//) taught them about [|Greek] and [|Roman literature].[|[][|75][|]][|[][|78][|]] At the age of 16, some students went on to [|rhetoric] school (where the teacher, almost always Greek, was called a //[|rhetor]//).[|[][|75][|]][|[][|78][|]] Education at this level prepared students for legal careers, and required that the students memorize the laws of **Rome**.[|[][|75][|]] Pupils went to school every day, except religious festivals and market days. There were also summer holidays. 

Government
//Main articles: [|Roman Constitution] and [|History of the Roman Constitution]// Initially, **Rome** was ruled by [|kings], who were elected from each of **Rome's** major tribes in turn.[|[][|79][|]] The exact nature of the king's power is uncertain. He may have held near-absolute power, or may also have merely been the [|chief executive] of the [|Senate and the people]. At least in military matters, the king's authority (//[|Imperium]//) was likely absolute. He was also the head of the [|state religion]. In addition to the authority of the King, there were three administrative assemblies: the [|Senate], which acted as an advisory body for the King; the [|Comitia Curiata], which could endorse and ratify laws suggested by the King; and the [|Comitia Calata], which was an assembly of the priestly college which could assemble the people in order to bear witness to certain acts, hear proclamations, and declare the [|feast] and holiday schedule for the next month. Representation of a sitting of the Roman Senate: [|Cicero] attacks [|Catilina], from a 19th century fresco The [|class struggles] of the [|Roman Republic] resulted in an unusual mixture of [|democracy] and [|oligarchy]. The word republic comes from the Latin //res publica// which literally translates to public business. Roman laws traditionally could only be passed by a vote of the Popular assembly ([|Comitia Tributa]). Likewise, candidates for public positions had to run for election by the people. However, the [|Roman Senate] represented an oligarchic institution, which acted as an advisory body. In the Republic, the Senate held great authority (//auctoritas//), but no actual legislative power; it was technically only an advisory council. However, as the Senators were individually very influential, it was difficult to accomplish anything against the collective will of the Senate. New Senators were chosen from among the most accomplished [|patricians] by [|Censors] (//Censura//), who could also remove a Senator from his office if he was found "morally corrupt"; a charge that could include [|bribery] or, as under [|Cato the Elder], embracing one's wife in public. Later, under the reforms of the dictator [|Sulla], [|Quaestors] were made automatic members of the Senate, though most of his reforms did not survive. The Republic had no fixed [|bureaucracy], and collected [|taxes] through the practice of [|tax farming]. Government positions such as [|quaestor], [|aedile], or [|praefect] were funded from the office-holder's private finances. In order to prevent any citizen from gaining too much power, new [|magistrates] were elected annually and had to share power with a colleague. For example, under normal conditions, the highest authority was held by two [|consuls]. In an emergency, a temporary [|dictator] could be appointed. Throughout the Republic, the administrative system was revised several times to comply with new demands. In the end, it proved inefficient for controlling the ever-expanding dominion of **Rome**, contributing to the establishment of the [|Roman Empire]. In the early Empire, the pretense of a republican form of government was maintained. The [|Roman Emperor] was portrayed as only a //[|princeps]//, or "first citizen", and the Senate gained legislative power and all legal authority previously held by the popular assemblies. However, the rule of the emperors became increasingly [|autocratic] over time, and the Senate was reduced to an advisory body appointed by the emperor. The Empire did not inherit a set bureaucracy from the Republic, since the Republic did not have any permanent governmental structures apart from the Senate. The Emperor appointed assistants and advisers, but the state lacked many institutions, such as a centrally planned [|budget]. Some historians have cited this as a significant reason for the [|decline of the Roman Empire]. 

Law
//Main article: [|Roman law]// The roots of the legal principles and practices of the **ancient** Romans may be traced to the law of the [|twelve tables] (from 449 BC) to the [|codification] of Emperor [|Justinian I] (around 530 AD). Roman law as preserved in Justinian's codes continued into the [|Byzantine Empire], and formed the basis of similar codifications in continental [|Western Europe]. Roman law continued, in a broader sense, to be applied throughout most of Europe until the end of the 17th century. The major divisions of the law of **ancient** **Rome**, as contained within the Justinian and Theodosian law codes, consisted of //Ius Civile//, //Ius Gentium//, and //Ius Naturale//. The //Ius Civile// ("Citizen law") was the body of common laws that applied to Roman citizens.[|[][|80][|]] The [|//Praetores Urbani//] (//sg. Praetor Urbanus//) were the individuals who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens. The //Ius Gentium// ("Law of nations") was the body of common laws that applied to foreigners, and their dealings with Roman citizens.[|[][|69][|]] The [|//Praetores Peregrini//] (//sg. Praetor Peregrinus//) were the individuals who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens and foreigners. //Ius Naturale// encompassed natural law, the body of laws that were considered common to all being. 

Economy
[|Industrial] and [|manufacturing] activities were smaller. The largest such activity were the [|mining] and [|quarrying] of stones, which provided basic construction materials for the buildings of that period. In manufacturing, production was on a relatively small scale, and generally consisted of workshops and small factories that employed at most dozens of workers. However, some [|brick] factories employed hundreds of workers. The economy of the early Republic was largely based on smallholding and paid labor. However, foreign wars and conquests made [|slaves] increasingly cheap and plentiful, and by the late Republic, the economy was largely dependent on slave labor for both skilled and unskilled work. Slaves are estimated to have constituted around 20% of the Roman Empire's population at this time and 40% in the city of **Rome**. Only in the Roman Empire, when the conquests stopped and the prices of slaves increased, did hired labor become more economical than slave ownership. Although [|barter] was used in **ancient** **Rome**, and often used in tax collection, **Rome** had a very developed [|coinage] system, with [|brass], [|bronze], and [|precious metal] coins in circulation throughout the Empire and beyond—some have even been discovered in [|India]. Before the 3rd century BC, [|copper] was traded by weight, measured in unmarked lumps, across central Italy. The original copper coins (//[|as]//) had a face value of one [|Roman pound] of copper, but weighed less. Thus, Roman money's utility as a unit of exchange consistently exceeded its [|intrinsic value] as metal. After [|Nero] began debasing the silver [|denarius], its [|legal] value was an estimated one-third greater than its intrinsic. Horses were too expensive, and other [|pack animals] too slow, for mass trade on the [|Roman roads], which connected military posts rather than markets, and were rarely designed for wheels. As a result, there was little transport of [|commodities] between Roman regions until the rise of [|Roman maritime trade] in the 2nd century BC. During that period, a trading vessel took less than a month to complete a trip from [|Gades] to [|Alexandria] via [|Ostia], spanning the entire length of the [|Mediterranean].[|[][|45][|]] Transport by sea was around 60 times cheaper than by land, so the volume for such trips was much larger. 
 * Ancient** **Rome** commanded a vast area of land, with tremendous natural and human resources. As such, **Rome's** economy remained focused on [|agriculture] and trade. Agricultural [|free trade] changed the Italian landscape, and by the 1st century BC, vast [|grape] and [|olive] estates had supplanted the [|yeoman] farmers, who were unable to match the imported grain price. The [|annexation] of [|Egypt], [|Sicily] and [|Tunisia] in [|North Africa] provided a continuous supply of grains. In turn, [|olive oil] and [|wine] were Italy's main [|exports]. Two-tier [|crop rotation] was practiced, but farm productivity was overall low, around 1 ton per [|hectare].

Military
//Main articles: [|Military history of **ancient** **Rome**], [|Roman military], [|Structural history of the Roman military], [|Roman army], and [|Roman navy]// 800 BC – AD 476 || Modern replica of [|lorica segmentata] type armor The early Roman army (c. 500 BC) was, like those of other contemporary city-states influenced by Greek civilization, a citizen //[|militia]// which practiced [|hoplite] tactics. It was small (the population of free males of military age was then about 9,000) and organized in five classes (in parallel to the //[|comitia centuriata]//, the body of citizens organized politically), with three providing hoplites and two providing light infantry. The early Roman army was tactically limited and its stance during this period was essentially defensive.[|[][|81][|]] By the 3rd century BC, the Romans abandoned the hoplite formation in favor of a more flexible system in which smaller groups of 120 (or in some cases 60) men called //[|maniples]// could maneuver more independently on the battlefield. Thirty maniples arranged in three lines with supporting troops constituted a [|legion], totaling between 4,000 and 5,000 men. The early Republican legion consisted of five sections, each of which was equipped differently and had different places in formation: the three lines of manipular heavy infantry (//[|hastati]//, //[|principes]// and //[|triarii])//, a force of light infantry (//[|velites]//), and the cavalry (//[|equites]//). With the new organization came a new orientation toward the offensive and a much more aggressive posture toward adjoining city-states.[|[][|82][|]] At nominal full strength, an early Republican legion would have included 3,600 to 4,800 heavy infantry, several hundred light infantry and several hundred cavalrymen, for a total of 4,000 to 5,000 men.[|[][|83][|]] Legions were often significantly understrength from recruitment failures or following periods of active service due to accidents, battle casualties, disease and desertion. During the Civil War, Pompey's legions in the east were at full strength because recently recruited, while Caesar's legions were in many cases well below nominal strength after long active service in Gaul. This pattern also held true for auxiliary forces.[|[][|84][|]] Until the late Republican period, the typical legionary was a property-owning citizen farmer from a rural area (an //adsiduus//) who served for particular (often annual) campaigns,[|[][|85][|]] and who supplied his own equipment and, in the case of //equites//, his own mount. Harris suggests that down to 200 BC, the average rural farmer (who survived) might participate in six or seven campaigns. Freedmen and slaves (wherever resident) and urban citizens did not serve except in rare emergencies.[|[][|86][|]] After 200 BC, economic conditions in rural areas deteriorated as manpower needs increased, so that the property qualifications for service were gradually reduced. Beginning with [|Gaius Marius] in 107 BC, citizens without property and some urban-dwelling citizens (//proletarii//) were enlisted and provided with equipment, although most legionaries continued to come from rural areas. Terms of service became continuous and long—up to twenty years if emergencies required it although Brunt argues that six or seven years was more typical.[|[][|87][|]] Beginning in the 3rd century BC, legionaries were paid //stipendium// (amounts are disputed but Caesar famously "doubled" payments to his troops to 225 [|//denarii//] a year), could anticipate booty and donatives (distributions of plunder by commanders) from successful campaigns and, beginning at the time of Marius, often were granted allotments of land upon retirement.[|[][|88][|]] Cavalry and light infantry attached to a legion (the //auxilia//) were often recruited in the areas where the legion served. Caesar formed a legion, the Fifth Alaudae, from non-citizens in Transalpine Gaul to serve in his campaigns in Gaul.[|[][|89][|]] By the time of Caesar Augustus, the ideal of the citizen-soldier had been abandoned and the legions had become fully professional. Legionaries were paid 900 [|//sesterces//] a year and could expect a payment of 12,000 //sesterces// on retirement.[|[][|90][|]] At the end of the [|Civil War], Augustus reorganized Roman military forces, discharging soldiers and disbanding legions. He retained 28 legions, distributed through the provinces of the Empire.[|[][|91][|]] During the [|Principate], the tactical organization of the Army continued to evolve. The //auxilia// remained independent cohorts, and legionary troops often operated as groups of cohorts rather than as full legions. A new versatile type of unit, the //cohortes equitatae//, combining cavalry and legionaries in a single formation could be stationed at garrisons or outposts, could fight on their own as balanced small forces or could combine with other similar units as a larger legion-sized force. This increase in organizational flexibility over time helped ensure the long-term success of Roman military forces.[|[][|92][|]] The Emperor [|Gallienus] (253–268 AD) began a reorganization that created the final military structure of the late Empire. Withdrawing some legionaries from the fixed bases on the border, Gallienus created mobile forces (the //[|Comitatenses]// or field armies) and stationed them behind and at some distance from the borders as a strategic reserve. The border troops (//limitanei//) stationed at fixed bases continued to be the first line of defense. The basic unit of the field army was the "regiment", //legiones// or //auxilia// for infantry and //vexellationes// for cavalry. Evidence suggests that nominal strengths may have been 1,200 men for infantry regiments and 600 for cavalry, although many records show lower actual troop levels (800 and 400). Many infantry and cavalry regiments operated in pairs under the command of a //[|comes]//. In addition to Roman troops, the field armies included regiments of "barbarians" recruited from allied tribes and known as //[|foederati]//. By 400 AD, //foederati// regiments had become permanently established units of the Roman army, paid and equipped by the Empire, led by a Roman tribune and used just as Roman units were used. In addition to the //foederati//, the Empire also used groups of barbarians to fight along with the legions as "allies" without integration into the field armies. Under the command of the senior Roman general present, they were led at lower levels by their own officers.[|[][|93][|]] Military leadership evolved greatly over the course of the history of **Rome**. Under the monarchy, the hoplite armies would have been led by the kings of **Rome**. During the early and middle Roman Republic, military forces were under the command of one of the two elected [|consuls] for the year. During the later Republic, members of the Roman Senatorial elite, as part of the normal sequence of elected public offices known as the [|//cursus honorum//], would have served first as [|//quaestor//] (often posted as deputies to field commanders), then as [|//praetor//]. Following the end of a term as praetor or consul, a Senator might be appointed by the Senate as a [|//propraetor//] or [|//proconsul//] (depending on the highest office previously held) to govern a foreign province. More junior officers (down to but not including the level of centurion) were selected by their commanders from their own [|//clientelae//] or those recommended by political allies among the Senatorial elite.[|[][|94][|]] Under Augustus, whose most important political priority was to place the military under a permanent and unitary command, the Emperor was the legal commander of each legion but exercised that command through a [|//legatus//] (legate) he appointed from the Senatorial elite. In a province with a single legion, the legate would command the legion (//legatus legionis//) and also serve as provincial governor, while in a province with more than one legion, each legion would be commanded by a legate and the legates would be commanded by the provincial governor (also a legate but of higher rank).[|[][|95][|]] During the later stages of the Imperial period (beginning perhaps with [|Diocletian]), the Augustan model was abandoned. Provincial governors were stripped of military authority, and command of the armies in a group of provinces was given to generals ([|//duces//]) appointed by the Emperor. These were no longer members of the Roman elite but men who came up through the ranks and had seen much practical soldiering. With increasing frequency, these men attempted (sometimes successfully) to usurp the positions of the Emperors who had appointed them. Decreased resources, increasing political chaos and civil war eventually left the Western Empire vulnerable to attack and takeover by neighboring barbarian peoples.[|[][|96][|]] Comparatively less is known about the Roman navy than the Roman army. Prior to the middle of the 3rd century BC, officials known as //duumviri navales// commanded a fleet of twenty ships used mainly to control piracy. This fleet was given up in 278 AD and replaced by allied forces. The [|First Punic War] required that **Rome** build large fleets, and it did so largely with the assistance of and financing from allies. This reliance on allies continued to the end of the Roman Republic. The [|quinquireme] was the main warship on both sides of the Punic Wars and remained the mainstay of Roman naval forces until replaced by the time of Caesar Augustus by lighter and more maneuverable vessels. As compared with a [|trireme], the quinquireme permitted the use of a mix of experienced and inexperienced crewmen (an advantage for a primarily land-based power), and its lesser maneuverability permitted the Romans to adopt and perfect [|boarding tactics] using a troop of approximately 40 marines in lieu of the [|ram]. Ships were commanded by a [|//navarch//], a rank equivalent to a centurion, who were usually not citizens. Potter suggests that because the fleet was dominated by non-Romans, the navy was considered non-Roman and allowed to atrophy in times of peace.[|[][|97][|]] Available information suggests that by the time of the late Empire (350 AD), the Roman navy comprised a number of fleets including both warships and merchant vessels for transportation and supply. Warships were oared sailing galleys with three to five banks of oarsmen. Fleet bases included such ports as Ravenna, Arles, Aquilea, Misenum and the mouth of the Somme River in the West and Alexandria and Rhodes in the East. Flotillas of small river craft (//classes//) were part of the //limitanei// (border troops) during this period, based at fortified river harbors along the Rhine and the Danube. The fact that prominent generals commanded both armies and fleets suggests that naval forces were treated as auxiliaries to the army and not as an independent service. The details of command structure and fleet strengths during this period are not well known although it is known that fleets were commanded by prefects.[|[][|98][|]] 
 * = [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rmn-military-header.svg/200px-Rmn-military-header.svg.png width="200" height="62" link="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Rmn-military-header.svg"]] ||
 * = This article is part of the series on:
 * [|Military of **ancient** **Rome**]** (//[|portal]//)
 * ~ [|Structural history] ||
 * = [|Roman army] (//[|unit types and ranks]//, //[|legions]//, //[|auxiliaries]//, //[|generals]//) ||
 * = [|Roman navy] (//[|fleets]//, //[|admirals]//) ||
 * ~ [|Campaign history] ||
 * = Lists of [|wars] and [|battles] ||
 * = [|Decorations and punishments] ||
 * ~ [|Technological history] ||
 * = [|Military engineering] (//[|castra]//, //[|siege engines]//, //[|arches]//, //[|roads]//) ||
 * = [|Personal equipment] ||
 * ~ [|Political history] ||
 * ~ [|Strategy and tactics] ||
 * = [|Infantry tactics] ||
 * = [|Frontiers and fortifications] (//[|limes]//, //[|Hadrian's Wall]//) ||
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Culture
//Main article: [|Culture of **ancient** **Rome**]// The seven hills of **Rome**. Life in **ancient** **Rome** revolved around the city of [|**Rome**], located on [|seven hills]. The city had a vast number of [|monumental] structures like the [|Colosseum], the [|Forum of Trajan] and the [|Pantheon]. It had fountains with fresh drinking-water supplied by hundreds of miles of [|aqueducts], [|theatres], [|gymnasiums], [|bath complexes] complete with libraries and shops, marketplaces, and functional sewers. Throughout the territory under the control of **ancient** **Rome**, residential [|architecture] ranged from very modest houses to [|country villas]. In the [|capital city] of **Rome**, there were [|imperial] [|residences] on the elegant [|Palatine Hill], from which the word //palace// is derived. The low [|Plebian] and middle [|Equestrian] classes lived in the city center, packed into [|apartments], or [|Insulae] which were almost like modern [|ghettos]. These areas, often built by upper class landlords for the rental incomes collected, were often centred upon [|collegia] or [|taberna]. These people, provided by a [|free supply of grain], and entertained by [|gladatorial games], were enrolled as [|clients] of [|patrons] amongst the upper class [|Patricians], whose assistance they sought and whose interests they upheld. 

Language
//Main article: [|Latin]// The native [|language] of the [|Romans] was [|Latin], an [|Italic language] the [|grammar of which] relies little on word order, conveying meaning through a system of [|affixes] attached to [|word stems].[|[][|99][|]] Its [|alphabet] was based on the [|Etruscan alphabet], which was in turn based on the [|Greek alphabet].[|[][|100][|]] Although surviving [|Latin literature] consists almost entirely of [|Classical Latin], an artificial and highly stylized and polished [|literary language] from the 1st century BC, the actual spoken language of the Roman Empire was [|Vulgar Latin], which significantly differed from Classical Latin in [|grammar] and [|vocabulary], and eventually in pronunciation.[|[][|101][|]] While [|Latin] remained the main written language of the Roman Empire, [|Greek] came to be the language spoken by the well-educated elite, as most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek. In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, which later became the [|Byzantine Empire], Latin was never able to replace Greek, and after the death of Justinian, Greek became the official language of the Byzantine government.[|[][|102][|]] The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe, and over time Vulgar Latin evolved and [|dialectized] in different locations, gradually shifting into a number of distinct [|Romance languages]. 

Religion
//Main articles: [|Religion in **ancient** **Rome**] and [|Roman mythology]// Archaic [|Roman religion], at least concerning the gods, was made up not of written [|narratives], but rather of complex interrelations between gods and humans.[|[][|103][|]] Unlike in [|Greek mythology], the gods were not personified, but were vaguely-defined sacred spirits called //[|numina]//. Romans also believed that every person, place or thing had its own //[|genius]//, or divine soul. During the [|Roman Republic], [|Roman religion] was organized under a strict system of priestly offices, which were held by men of senatorial rank. The College of Pontifices was uppermost body in this hierarchy, and its chief priest, the //[|Pontifex Maximus]//, was the head of the state religion. [|Flamens] took care of the cults of various gods, while [|augurs] were trusted with taking the [|auspices]. The [|sacred king] took on the religious responsibilities of the deposed kings. In the Roman empire, emperors were held to be gods, and the formalized [|imperial cult] became increasingly prominent. As contact with the [|Greeks] increased, the old Roman gods became increasingly associated with Greek gods.[|[][|104][|]] Thus, [|Jupiter] was perceived to be the same deity as [|Zeus], [|Mars] became associated with [|Ares], and Neptune with [|Poseidon]. The Roman gods also assumed the attributes and mythologies of these Greek gods. Under the empire, the Romans absorbed the mythologies of their conquered subjects, often leading to situations in which the temples and priests of traditional Italian deities existed side by side with those of foreign gods.[|[][|105][|]] Beginning with Emperor [|Nero], Roman official policy towards Christianity was negative, and at some points, simply being a Christian could be punishable by death. Under Emperor [|Diocletian], the [|persecution of Christians] reached its peak. However, it became an officially supported religion in the Roman state under [|Constantine I] and became exponentially popular. All religions except Christianity were prohibited in 391 AD by an edict of Emperor [|Theodosius I].[|[][|106][|]] 

Art, music and literature
//Main articles: [|Roman art], [|Latin literature], [|Roman music], [|Roman sculpture], and [|Theatre of **ancient** **Rome**]// Roman [|painting] styles show [|Greek] influences, and surviving examples are primarily [|frescoes] used to adorn the walls and ceilings of country [|villas], though [|Roman literature] includes mentions of paintings on [|wood], [|ivory], and other materials.[|[][|107][|]][|[][|108][|]] Several examples of Roman painting have been found at [|Pompeii], and from these art historians divide the history of Roman painting into four periods. The first style of Roman painting was practiced from the early 2nd century BC to the early- or mid-1st century BC. It was mainly composed of imitations of [|marble] and [|masonry], though sometimes including depictions of mythological characters. The second style of Roman painting began during the early 1st century BC, and attempted to depict realistically three-dimensional architectural features and landscapes. The third style occurred during the reign of [|Augustus] (27 BC – 14 AD), and rejected the [|realism] of the second style in favor of simple ornamentation. A small architectural scene, landscape, or abstract design was placed in the center with a [|monochrome] background. The fourth style, which began in the 1st century AD, depicted scenes from mythology, while retaining architectural details and abstract patterns.[|[][|107][|]][|[][|108][|]] Portrait sculpture during the period utilized youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism. During the [|Antonine] and [|Severan] periods, more ornate hair and bearding became prevalent, created with deeper cutting and drilling. Advancements were also made in [|relief sculptures], usually depicting Roman victories. [|Latin literature] was from its very inception influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest extant works are of historical [|epics] telling the early military history of **Rome**. As the Republic expanded, authors began to produce [|poetry], [|comedy], [|history], and [|tragedy]. [|Roman music] was largely based on [|Greek music], and played an important part in many aspects of Roman life.[|[][|109][|]] In the [|Roman military], musical instruments such as the //[|tuba]// (a long [|trumpet]) or the //cornu// (similar to a [|French horn]) were used to give various commands, while the //bucina// (possibly a trumpet or [|horn]) and the //lituus// (probably an elongated J-shaped instrument), were used in ceremonial capacities.[|[][|110][|]] Music was used in the [|amphitheaters] between fights and in the //[|odea]//, and in these settings is known to have featured the //cornu// and the //hydraulis// (a type of water organ).[|[][|111][|]] The majority of religious rituals featured musical performances, with //tibiae// (double pipes) at sacrifices, [|cymbals] and [|Tambourines] at [|orgiastic] [|cults], and [|rattles] and [|hymns] across the spectrum.[|[][|112][|]] Some music historians believe that music was used at almost all public ceremonies.[|[][|109][|]] Music historians are not certain if Roman musicians made a significant contribution to the [|theory] or practice of music.[|[][|109][|]] The [|graffiti], [|brothels], [|paintings], and [|sculptures] found in [|Pompeii] and [|Herculaneum] suggest that the Romans had a very sex-saturated culture.[|[][|113][|]] 

Scholarly studies
The interest in studying **ancient** **Rome** arose presumably during the [|Age of Enlightenment] in [|France]. [|Charles Montesquieu] wrote a work //Reflections on the Causes of the Grandeur and Declension of the Romans//. The first major work was //[|The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]// by [|Edward Gibbon], which encompassed the period from the end of 2nd century to the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. Like Montesquieu, Gibbon paid high tribute to the virtue of Roman citizens. [|Barthold Georg Niebuhr] was a founder of the examination of **ancient** Roman history and wrote //The Roman History//, tracing the period until the [|First Punic war]. Niebuhr made an attempt to determine the way the Roman tradition evolved. According to him, Romans, like other people, had an historical [|ethos] which was preserved mainly in the noble families. During the [|Napoleonic] period a work titled //The History of Romans// by [|Victor Duruy] appeared. It highlighted the [|Caesarean] period popular at the time. //[|History of **Rome**]//, //[|Roman constitutional law]// and //[|Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum]//, all by [|Theodor Mommsen], became very important milestones. Later the work //Greatness and Decline of **Rome**// by [|Guglielmo Ferrero] was published. The Russian work //Очерки по истории римского землевладения, преимущественно в эпоху Империи// (//The Outlines on Roman Landownership History, Mainly During the Empire//) by Ivan Grevs contained information on the economy of [|Pomponius Atticus], one of the greatest landowners during the end of the Republic. 

Games and activities
The youth of **Rome** had several forms of play and exercise, such as [|jumping], [|wrestling], [|boxing], and [|racing].[|[][|114][|]] In the countryside, pastimes for the wealthy also included fishing and hunting.[|[][|115][|]] The Romans also had several forms of ball playing, including one resembling [|handball].[|[][|114][|]] [|Dice games], [|board games], and [|gamble games] were extremely popular pastimes.[|[][|114][|]] Women did not participate in these activities. For the wealthy, dinner parties presented an opportunity for entertainment, sometimes featuring music, dancing, and poetry readings.[|[][|116][|]] [|Plebeians] sometimes enjoyed similar parties through clubs or associations, although recreational dining usually meant patronizing [|taverns].[|[][|116][|]] Children entertained themselves with toys and such games as [|leapfrog].[|[][|115][|]][|[][|116][|]] A popular form of entertainment was [|gladiatorial] combats. Gladiators fought either to the death, or to "first blood" with a variety of weapons and in a variety of different scenarios. These fights achieved their height of popularity under the emperor [|Claudius], who placed the final outcome of the combat firmly in the hands of the emperor with a hand gesture. Contrary to popular representations in film, several experts believe the gesture for death was not "thumbs down". Although no one is certain as to what the gestures were, some experts conclude that the emperor would signify "death" by holding a raised fist to the winning combatant and then extending his thumb upwards, while "mercy" was indicated by a raised fist with no extended thumb.[|[][|117][|]] Animal shows were also popular with the Romans, where foreign animals were either displayed for the public or combined with gladiatorial combat. A prisoner or gladiator, armed or unarmed, was thrown into the arena and an animal was released. The //[|Circus Maximus]//, another popular site in **Rome**, was primarily used for [|horse] and [|chariot racing], and when the Circus was flooded, there could be sea battles. It was also used for many other events.[|[][|118][|]] The Circus could hold up to 385,000 people;[|[][|119][|]] people all over **Rome** would visit it. Two temples, one with seven large eggs and one with seven dolphins, lay in the middle of the track of Circus Maximus, and whenever the racers made a lap, one of each would be removed. This was done to keep the spectators and the racers informed of the race statistics. Other than for sports, the Circus Maximus was also an area of [|marketing] and [|gambling]. Higher authorities, such as the emperor, also attended games in the Circus Maximus, as it was considered rude to avoid attendance. The higher authorities, knights, and many other people who were involved with the race, sat in reserved seats located above everyone else. It was also considered inappropriate for emperors to favour a particular team. The Circus Maximus was created in 600 BC and hosted the last horse-racing game in 549 AD, after a custom enduring over a millennium. 

Roman Technological Achievements
//Main article: [|Roman technology]// The Romans were particularly renowned for their [|**architecture**], which is grouped with Greek traditions into "**[|Classical architecture]**". During the Roman Republic, it remained stylistically almost identical to [|Greek architecture]. Although there were many differences from Greek architecture, **Rome** borrowed heavily from Greece in adhering to strict, formulaic building designs and proportions. Aside from two new [|orders] of columns, [|composite] and [|Tuscan], and from the [|dome], which was derived from the [|Etruscan] [|arch], **Rome** had relatively few architectural innovations until the end of the Republic. The [|Appian Way] (//Via Appia//), a road connecting the city of [|**Rome**] to the southern parts of [|Italy], remains usable even today. In the 1st century BC, Romans started to use [|concrete], widely. Concrete was invented in the late 3rd century BC. It was a powerful [|cement] derived from [|pozzolana], and soon supplanted [|marble] as the chief Roman building material and allowed many daring architectural schemata. Also in the 1st century BC, [|Vitruvius] wrote //[|De architectura]//, possibly the first complete treatise on architecture in history. In late 1st century BC, **Rome** also began to use [|glassblowing] soon after its invention in [|Syria] about 50 BC. [|Mosaics] took the Empire by storm after samples were retrieved during [|Lucius Cornelius Sulla]'s campaigns in Greece. [|Article on history of Roman concrete] Concrete made possible the paved, durable **[|Roman roads]**, many of which were still in use a thousand years after the fall of **Rome**. The construction of a vast and efficient travel network throughout the Empire dramatically increased **Rome's** power and influence. It was originally constructed to allow [|Roman legions] to be rapidly deployed. But these highways also had enormous economic significance, solidifying **Rome's** role as a trading crossroads—the origin of the saying "all roads lead to **Rome**". The Roman government maintained way stations which provided refreshments to travelers at regular intervals along the roads, constructed bridges where necessary, and established a system of horse relays for [|couriers] that allowed a dispatch to travel up to 800 kilometers (500 mi) in 24 hours. [|Pont du Gard] in [|France] is a **[|Roman aqueduct]** built in c. 19 BC. It is one of France's top tourist attractions and a [|World Heritage Site]. The Romans constructed numerous [|**aqueducts**] to supply water to cities and industrial sites and to assist in [|their agriculture]. The city of **Rome** was supplied by 11 aqueducts with a combined length of 350 kilometres (220 mi).[|[][|120][|]] Most aqueducts were constructed below the surface, with only small portions above ground supported by arches. Sometimes, where depressions deeper than 50 metres (165 ft) had to be crossed, [|inverted siphons] were used to force water uphill. [|[2]] The Romans also made major advancements in [|sanitation]. Romans were particularly famous for their public [|baths], called //[|thermae]//, which were used for both hygienic and social purposes. Many Roman houses came to have [|flush toilets] and [|indoor plumbing], and a complex [|sewer] system, the //[|Cloaca Maxima]//, was used to drain the local [|marshes] and carry waste into the Tiber river. Some historians have speculated that the use of [|lead] pipes in the sewer and plumbing systems led to widespread [|lead poisoning] which contributed to the decline in [|birth rate] and general decay of Roman society leading up to the [|fall of **Rome**]. However, lead content would have been minimized because the flow of water from aqueducts could not be shut off; it ran continuously through public and private outlets into the drains, and only a small number of taps were in use.[|[][|121][|]] 
 * Ancient** **Rome** boasted the most impressive technological feats of its day, using many advancements that would be lost in the [|Middle Ages] and not be rivaled again until the 19th and 20th centuries. But though adept at adopting and synthesizing other cultures' technologies, the Roman civilization was not especially innovative or progressive. Many practical Roman innovations were adopted from earlier Greek designs. New ideas were rarely developed. Roman society considered the articulate soldier who could wisely govern a large household the ideal, and [|Roman law] made no provisions for [|intellectual property] nor the promotion of invention. The concept of "scientists" and "engineers" did not yet exist, and advancements were often divided and based on craft, as groups of [|artisans] jealously guarded new technologies as [|trade secrets]. Nevertheless, a number of vital technological breakthroughs were spread and thoroughly used by **Rome**, contributing to an enormous degree to **Rome's** dominance and lasting influence in Europe.
 * [|Roman engineering]** as well as **[|Roman military engineering]** constituted a large portion of **Rome's** technological superiority and legacy, and contributed to the construction of hundreds of roads, bridges, [|aqueducts], [|baths], [|theaters] and [|arenas]. Many monuments, such as the [|Colosseum], [|Pont du Gard], and [|Pantheon], still remain as testaments to Roman engineering and culture.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: [|navigation], [|search]For the Italian commune, see [|Ercolano]. ||  [|Region as classified by UNESCO.] || Herculaneum (in modern [|Italian] //Ercolano//) is an ancient [|Roman] town, located in the territory of the current commune of [|Ercolano]. Its ruins can be found at the co-ordinates [|40°48′21″N 14°20′51″E] [|﻿ /] [|40.80583, 14.3475] , in the [|Italian] region of [|Campania]. It is most famous for having been lost, along with [|Pompeii], [|Stabiae] and [|Oplontis], in the eruption of [|Mount Vesuvius] beginning on [|August 24], [|79] AD, which buried them in superheated [|pyroclastic] material that has solidified into volcanic [|tuff]. Since the discovery of bones in 1981, some 150 skeletons have been found. **Herculaneum** was a smaller town with a wealthier population than Pompeii at the time of its destruction. hide] * [|1] [|History] 
 * ~ Archaeological Areas of [|Pompeii], **Herculaneum**, and [|Torre Annunziata] * ||
 * ~ [|UNESCO World Heritage Site] ||
 * **Type** || Cultural ||
 * **[|Criteria]** || iii, iv, v ||
 * **Reference** || [|829] ||
 * **Region** || [|Europe and North America] ||
 * Inscription history ||
 * Inscription || 1997 (21st [|Session]) ||
 * < * [|Name as inscribed on World Heritage List.]
 * ==Contents==
 * [|2] [|The eruption of 79 AD]
 * [|3] [|Excavation]
 * [|3.1] [|Skeletal remains]
 * [|4] [|Specific buildings]
 * [|4.1] [|Open Excavation]
 * [|4.2] [|The House of Aristides (Ins II, 1)]
 * [|4.3] [|The House of Argus (Ins II, 2)]
 * [|4.4] [|The House of the Genius (Ins II, 3)]
 * [|4.5] [|The House of the Alcove (Ins IV)]
 * [|4.6] [|College of the Augustales]
 * [|4.7] [|Villa of the Papyri]
 * [|5] [|Issues of conservation]
 * [|6] [|Photos]
 * [|7] [|Documentaries]
 * [|8] [|References]
 * [|9] [|External links] ||

[[|edit]] History
Plan of the excavations of **Herculaneum** Ancient tradition connected **Herculaneum** with the name of the Greek hero [|Herakles] (//[|Hercules]// in [|Latin] and consequently [|Roman Mythology]),[|[][|1][|]] an indication that the city was of Greek origin. In fact, it seems that some forefathers of the Samnite tribes of the Italian mainland founded the first civilization on the site of **Herculaneum** at the end of the 6th century BC. Soon after, the town came under Greek control and was used as a trading post because of its proximity to the [|Gulf of Naples]. It is the Greeks who named the city **Herculaneum**. In the 4th century BC, **Herculaneum** again came under the domination of the Samnites. The city remained under Samnite control until it became a Roman //municipium// in 89 BC, when, having participated in the [|Social War] ("war of the allies" against Rome), it was defeated by Titus Didius, a legate of [|Sulla]. After the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, the town of **Herculaneum** was buried under approximately 20 meters (50-60 feet) of lava, mud and ash. It lay hidden and nearly intact for more than 1600 years until it was accidentally discovered by some workers digging a well in 1709. From there, the excavation process began but is still incomplete. Today, the Italian towns of [|Ercolano] and [|Portici] lie on the approximate site of **Herculaneum**. Until 1969 the town of Ercolano was called [|Resina], and it changed its name to Ercolano, the Italian modernization of the ancient name in honour of the old city. The inhabitants worshipped above all Hercules, who was believed to be the founder of both the town and Mount Vesuvius. Other important deities worshiped include [|Venus], who was believed to be Hercules' lover, and [|Apollo]. **Herculaneum** and other cities affected by the eruption of [|Mount Vesuvius]. The black cloud represents the general distribution of ash and cinder. Modern coast lines are shown.

[[|edit]] The eruption of 79 AD
The catastrophic eruption of Mt. Vesuvius occurred on the afternoon of [|August 24], 79 AD. Because Vesuvius had been dormant for approximately 800 years, it was no longer even recognized as a volcano. Based on the archaeological excavations on the one hand and two letters of [|Pliny the Younger] to the Roman historian [|Tacitus] on the other hand, the course of the eruption can be reconstructed.

=Osci=

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from [|Opici])Jump to: [|navigation], [|search] The part of Italy that is shaded red is Campania. The Osci lived in the northern area of this region and competed with the Etruscans for full possession of the entire area. The **Osci**, which may also be referred to by the names of Opici, Opsci (for the fertility goddess, [|Ops]), and Obsci (**Oscans** or Opicans in English) were historic inhabitants of Southern [|Italy] dwelling in Northern [|Campania] and ultimately settling in the border region between [|Latium] and Campania. They also competed with the [|Etruscans] for possession over Campania. Antichus, who was generally regarded as [|Thucydides'] source for western history, later identified this tribe with the Ausones (Aurunci) who had been conquered and scattered into Campania and elsewhere by the [|Sabelli]. The Oscan name survived through this scattering because the language that they spoke was called [|Oscan] as well. 

[[|edit]] Conflict and subjugation
In the beginning of the [|5th Century B.C.], the Osci fought [|Rome] for the Ager Pomptinus, the region in Latium between mons Abanus and the coast of the mare Tyrrhenum. Being that the Osci were farmers and the Ager Pomptinus contained very fertile land, this area would have been very valuable to them. However, the Osci suffered a devastating defeat at the hands of the Romans. Later in the 5th century, the Samnites ([|Samnium]), a warlike people who also spoke Oscan, took over the Oscan region and subjugated the Osci. Subsequently, during the 1st [|Samnite War] (343-341 BC), Rome gained control of Northern Campania. According to [|Livy], the Osci were somewhat the cause of the 1st Samnite War. He states that it began because the Samnites made an unprovoked attack on the Sidicines (an Oscan canton in Northern Campania). This caused the Sidicines to run to Campania for safety. The Samnites then attacked the Campanians, defeated them, and drove them back within their own walls. In desperation the Osci asked for help from the Romans. They were then under Rome’s control. 
 * However,the 1st Samnite War is thought to be fiction of the annalistic tradition, meaning that many of the later [|annalists] of Roman history fabricated aspects of certain events (even the events themselves) for patriotic reasons.

[[|edit]] References
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osci"[|Categories]: [|Ancient peoples of Italy] | [|History of Italy] | [|Campania]
 * "**Oscans**". //Brill's New Pauly Encyclopedia of the Ancient World// **II**. (2003). Ed. Cancik, Hubert, and Helmuth Schneider. Leiden: Brill Academic Publisher. [|ISBN 90-0412259-1].
 * Caspari, M.O.B. (1911), //[|The Etruscans and the Sicilian Expedition of 414-413 B.C.]//, pp. 113-115, http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0009-8388%28191104%291%3A5%3A2%3C113%3ATEATSE%3E2.0.CO%3B2-%23.
 * Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Anthony, eds. (2003), //Oxford Classical Dictionary (Revised)// (3rd ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, [|ISBN 0-198-66172-X].
 * Livy (1990), "History of Rome", in Lewis, Naphtali; Reinhold, Meyer, //Roman Civilization: The Republic and the Augustan Age//, **I** (3rd ed.), New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 81-85, [|ISBN 0-231-07131-0].

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At around 1 PM on August 27, Vesuvius began spewing ash and volcanic stone thousands of meters into the sky. When it reached the boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere, the top of the cloud flattened leading Pliny to describe it to Tacitus as a [|stone pine] tree. The prevailing winds at the time blew towards the southeast which caused the volcanic material to fall primarily on the city of Pompeii and the area surrounding it. Since **Herculaneum** lay to the west of Vesuvius, it was only mildly affected by the first phase of the eruption. While the roofs in Pompeii collapsed under the weight of the falling debris, only a few centimeters of ash fell on **Herculaneum** causing little damage. This was enough to cause many of the inhabitants to flee, however. It was long thought that nearly all of the inhabitants managed to escape because initial excavations revealed only a few skeletons. It wasn't until 1982, when the excavations reached boat houses on the beach area, that this view changed. In 12 boat houses archaeologists discovered 250 skeletons huddled close together. Boat houses where skeletons were found During the night, the column of volcanic debris which had risen into the stratosphere began falling back down onto Vesuvius. A [|pyroclastic flow] formed that sent a mixture of 400°C (750°F) gas, ash, and rock racing down at 100 mph (160 km/h) toward **Herculaneum**. At about 1 AM it reached the boat houses, where those waiting for rescue were killed instantly by the intense heat. This flow and several more following it slowly filled the city's buildings from the bottom up, causing them little damage. The amazingly good state of preservation of the structures and their contents is due to three factors: 
 * 1) By the time the wind changed and ash began to fall on **Herculaneum**, the structures were already filled with volcanic debris. Thus the roofs did not collapse.
 * 2) The intense heat of the first pyroclastic flow carbonized the surface of organic materials and extracted the water from them.
 * 3) The deep (up to 25 meters), dense [|tuff] formed an airtight seal over **Herculaneum** for 1700 years

[[|edit]] Excavation
The skeleton called the "Ring Lady" unearthed in **Herculaneum**. Excavation began at modern Ercolano in 1738. The elaborate publication of [|//Le Antichità di Ercolano// ("The Antiquities of **Herculaneum**")] under the patronage of the [|King of the Two Sicilies] had an effect on incipient European [|Neoclassicism] out of all proportion to its limited circulation; in the later 18th century, motifs from **Herculaneum** began to appear on stylish furnishings from decorative wall-paintings and tripod tables to perfume burners and teacups. However, excavation ceased once the nearby town of Pompeii was discovered, which was significantly easier to excavate due to the reduced amount of debris covering the site (four meters as opposed to Herculaneum's twenty meters). In the twentieth century, excavation once again resumed in the town. However, many public and private buildings, including the forum complex, are yet to be excavated. 

[[|edit]] Skeletal remains
The [|pyroclastic flow] instantly killed all residents who had not escaped before it struck. In contrast to Pompeii, the remains of those killed at **Herculaneum** were not preserved in plaster casts. In 1981, Italian public works employees, under the direction of Dr. Giuseppe Maggi, found bones at the Herculanium site while digging a drainage trench. Italian officials, at Dr. Maggi's urging, called in [|Sara C. Bisel], a physical anthropologist from the United States, to oversee the excavation and study the bones. This research was funded with a grant from the [|National Geographic Society]. Until this discovery, there were few Roman skeletal remains available for academic study, as [|Ancient Romans] regularly practiced [|cremation]. Excavations in the port area of **Herculaneum**, which initially turned up more than 55 skeletons: 30 adult males, 13 adult females and 12 children. The skeletons were found on the seafront, where it is believed they had fled in an attempt to escape the volcanic eruption. This group includes the 'Ring Lady' (image at right, by [|National Geographic] photographer Lou Mazzatenta), named for the rings on her fingers. Through the chemical analysis of those remains, Dr. Bisel was able to gain greater insight into the health and nutrition of the **Herculaneum** population. Quantities of lead were found in some of the skeletons, which led to speculation of lead poisoning. The physical examination of the bones yielded additional information. The presence of scarring on the pelvis, for instance, gave some indication of the number of children a woman had borne. 

[[|edit]] Specific buildings
//To expand this section, translate [|it:Scavi archeologici di Ercolano].// 

[[|edit]] Open Excavation
The buildings at the site are grouped in blocks (insulae), defined by the intersection of the east-west (cardi) and north-south (decumani) streets. Hence we have Insula II - Insula VII running anti-clockwise from Insula II. To the east are two additional blocks: Orientalis I (oI) and Orientalis II (oII). To the south of Orientalis I (oI) lies one additional group of buildings known as the 'Suburban District' (SD). Individual buildings having their own entrance number. For example, the House of the Deer is labelled (Ins IV, 3). 

[[|edit]] The House of Aristides (Ins II, 1)
The first building in insula II is the House of Aristides. The entrance opens directly onto the atrium, but the remainder of the house is not particularly well preserved due to damage caused by previous excavations. The lower floor was probably used for storage. 

[[|edit]] The House of Argus (Ins II, 2)
The second house in insula II got its name from a fresco of Argus and Io which once adorned a reception room off the large peristyle. The fresco is now sadly lost, but its name lives on. This building must have been one of the finer villas in **Herculaneum**. The discovery of the house in the late 1820s was notable because it was the first time a second floor had been unearthed in such detail. The excavation revealed a second floor balcony overlooking Cardo III. Also wooden shelving and cupboards. Sadly with the passing of time, these elements have now been lost. 

[[|edit]] The House of the Genius (Ins II, 3)
To the north of the House of Argus lies the House of the Genius. It has only been partially excavated but it appears to have been a spacious building. The house derives its name from the statue of a cupid that formed part of a candlestick. In the centre of the peristyle are the remains of a rectangular basin. 

[[|edit]] The House of the Alcove (Ins IV)
The house is actually two buildings joined together. As a consequence of this it is a mixture of plain and simple rooms combined with some highly decorated ones. The atrium is covered, so lacks the usual impluvium. It retains its original flooring of opus tesselatum and opus sectile. Off the atrium is a biclinium richly decorated with frescoes in the fourth style and a large triclinium which originally had a marble floor. A number of other rooms, one of which is the apsed alcove after which the house was named, can be reached via a hall which gets its light from a small courtyard. 

[[|edit]] College of the Augustales
Fresco from the college, depicting the myth of [|Hercules]. Temple of the [|augustales] or priests of the [|imperial cult] 

[[|edit]] Villa of the Papyri
//Main article: [|Villa of the Papyri]// The most famous of the luxurious villas at **Herculaneum** is the "[|Villa of the Papyri]" now identified as the magnificent seafront retreat for [|Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus], [|Julius Caesar]'s father-in-law. It stretches down towards the sea in four terraces. Piso, a literate man who patronized poets and philosophers, built there a fine library, the only one to survive intact from antiquity. Scrolls from the villa are stored at the [|National Library, Naples]. The scrolls are badly carbonized, but a large number have been unrolled, with varying degrees of success. Computer-enhanced [|multi-spectral imaging], in the infra-red range, helps make the ink legible. There is now a real prospect that it will be possible to read the unopened scrolls using X-rays.[|[1]] The same techniques could be applied to the scrolls waiting to be discovered in the as-yet unexcavated part of the villa, removing the need for potentially damaging the unrolled scrolls. 

[[|edit]] Issues of conservation
//Main article: [|Conservation issues of Pompeii and **Herculaneum**]// The volcanic water, ash and debris covering **Herculaneum**, along with the extreme heat, left it in a remarkable state of preservation for over 1600 years. However, once excavations began, exposure to the elements began the slow process of deterioration. This was not helped by the methods of archaeology used earlier in the town's excavation, which generally centered around recovering valuable artifacts rather than ensuring the survival of all artifacts. In the early 1980s and under the direction of Dr. [|Sara C. Bisel], preservation of the skeletal remains became a high priority. The carbonised remains of organic materials, when exposed to the air, deteriorated over a matter of days, and destroyed many of the remains until a way of preserving them was formed. Today, tourism and vandalism has damaged many of the areas open to the public, and water damage coming from the modern Ercolano has undermined many of the foundations of the buildings. Reconstruction efforts have often proved counterproductive, however in modern times conservation efforts have been more successful. Today excavations have been temporarily discontinued, in order to direct all funding to help save the city. A large number of [|artifacts] come from **Herculaneum** are preserved in the [|Naples National Archaeological Museum]. 

[[|edit]] Photos
The house is noted for this outstanding summer [|triclinium] with a [|nymphaeum] decorated with coloured mosaics || Street Paving Stones in **Herculaneum** || Residential water pipe made of lead in **Herculaneum** || Wall paintings in the first style || Inlaid Marble Floor || 
 * [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Ercolano2_Copyright2003KaihsuTai.jpg/120px-Ercolano2_Copyright2003KaihsuTai.jpg width="120" height="80" link="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Ercolano2_Copyright2003KaihsuTai.jpg"]]
 * Herculaneum**, Neptune and Amphitrite, Wall Mosaic in House Number 22 || [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Roman_Road_Surface_at_Herculaneum.jpg/120px-Roman_Road_Surface_at_Herculaneum.jpg width="120" height="90" link="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Roman_Road_Surface_at_Herculaneum.jpg"]]
 * [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Herculaneum_Wall_1.Style.jpg/120px-Herculaneum_Wall_1.Style.jpg width="120" height="90" link="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Herculaneum_Wall_1.Style.jpg"]]

[[|edit]] Documentaries

 * A 1987 National Geographic special //[|In the Shadow of Vesuvius]// explored the sites of [|Pompeii] and **Herculaneum**, interviewed archaeologists, and examined the events leading up to the eruption of Vesuvius.
 * An hour-long drama produced for the [|BBC] entitled //[|Pompeii: The Last Day]// portrays several characters (with historically attested names, but fictional life-stories) living in Pompeii, **Herculaneum** and around the [|Bay of Naples], and their last hours, including a [|fuller] and his wife, two [|gladiators], and [|Pliny the Elder]. It also portrays the facts of the eruption.
 * [|Pompeii Live,] [|Channel 5], 28th June 2006, 8pm, live archaeological dig at Pompeii and **Herculaneum**
 * [|Secrets of the Dead: **Herculaneum** Uncovered] a PBS show covering the archaeological discoveries at **Herculaneum**.

[[|edit]] References

 * 1) **[|^]** The [|founding myth] asserted that Hercules built **Herculaneum** at the location where he killed [|Cacus], a son of [|Vulcan] who had stolen some of Hercules' cattle.
 * National Geographic, Vol 162, No 6. //Buried Roman Town Give Up Its Dead,// (December, 1982)
 * National Geographic, Vol 165, No 5. //The Dead Do Tell Tales,// (May, 1984)
 * Discover, magazine, Vol 5, No 10. //The Bone Lady// (October, 1984)
 * The Mayo Alumnus, Vol 19, No2. //An Archaeologist's Preliminary Report: Time Warp at **Herculaneum**,// (April, 1983)
 * Carnegie Mellon Magazine, Vol 4, No 2. //Bone Lady Reconstructs People at **Herculaneum**,// Winter, 1985
 * //In the Shadow of Vesuvius// National Geographic Special, (February 11, 1987)
 * //30 years of National Geographic Special,// (January 25, 1995)

[[|edit]] External links
[|Wikimedia Commons] has media related to: //**[|Ercolano]**// [|Coordinates]: [|40°48′N 14°21′E] [|﻿ /] [|40.8, 14.35] Retrieved from "[|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/**Herculaneum**]"[|Categories]: [|World Heritage Sites in Italy] | [|Archaeological sites in Italy] | [|Destroyed cities] | [|Roman sites of Campania]
 * **(Italian)** [|Area Vesuvio]
 * [|The Friends of **Herculaneum** Society]
 * [|**Herculaneum**: Destruction and Re-discovery]
 * [|The local archaeological authorities]
 * [|AD 79: Year of Destruction]
 * [|The Philodemus Project will publish Philodemus' works on poetry and on rhetoric.]
 * [|Brigham Young University: **Herculaneum** Scrolls]
 * [|Images of **Herculaneum**]
 * ||||||~ [|v] • <span style="border: medium none; color: rgb(0, 43, 184)">[|d] • <span style="border: medium none; color: rgb(0, 43, 184)">[|e] [|World Heritage Sites] in [|Italy] ||
 * //For official site names, see each article or the [|List of World Heritage Sites in Italy].// ||
 * [|Aeolian Islands] **·** [|Aquileia] **·** [|Archaeological Area of Agrigento] **·** [|Pompeii], Herculaneum, [|Torre Annunziata] **·** [|Botanical Garden, Padua] **·** [|Caserta Palace], [|Aqueduct of Vanvitelli], [|San Leucio Complex] **·** [|Castel del Monte] **·** [|Cilento and Vallo di Diano], [|Paestum], [|Velia], [|Certosa di Padula] **·** [|Amalfi Coast] **·** [|Crespi d'Adda] **·** [|Ravenna] **·** [|Cerveteri], [|Tarquinia] **·** [|Ferrara] **·** [|Florence] **·** [|Assisi] **·** [|Matera] **·** [|Cathedral], [|Torre Civica], [|Piazza Grande, Modena] **·** [|Naples] **·** [|Genoa] **·** [|Mantua] **·** [|Piazza del Duomo, Pisa] **·** [|Pienza] **·** [|Portovenere], [|Cinque Terre] ([|Monterosso al Mare], [|Vernazza], [|Corniglia], [|Manarola], [|Riomaggiore]), [|Palmaria], [|Tino], [|Tinetto] **·** [|Residences of the Royal House of Savoy] **·** [|Rock Drawings in Valcamonica] **·** [|Rome] 1 **·** [|Sabbioneta] **·** [|//Sacri Monti// of Piedmont and Lombardy] **·** [|San Gimignano] **·** [|Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan] **·** [|Val di Noto] ([|Caltagirone], [|Militello in Val di Catania], [|Catania], [|Modica], [|Noto], [|Palazzolo Acreide], [|Ragusa], [|Scicli]) **·** [|Siena] **·** [|Barumini nuraghes] **·** [|Syracuse], [|Necropolis of Pantalica] **·** [|Alberobello] **·** [|Urbino] **·** [|Val d'Orcia] **·** [|Venice] **·** [|Verona] **·** [|Vicenza], [|Palladian Villas of the Veneto] **·** [|Hadrian's Villa] **·** [|Villa d'Este] **·** [|Villa Romana del Casale] || [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/64px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png width="64" height="43" caption="Flag of Italy" link="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Italy.svg"]] ||
 * 1 Shared with the [|Holy See]. ||  ||
 * [|Aeolian Islands] **·** [|Aquileia] **·** [|Archaeological Area of Agrigento] **·** [|Pompeii], Herculaneum, [|Torre Annunziata] **·** [|Botanical Garden, Padua] **·** [|Caserta Palace], [|Aqueduct of Vanvitelli], [|San Leucio Complex] **·** [|Castel del Monte] **·** [|Cilento and Vallo di Diano], [|Paestum], [|Velia], [|Certosa di Padula] **·** [|Amalfi Coast] **·** [|Crespi d'Adda] **·** [|Ravenna] **·** [|Cerveteri], [|Tarquinia] **·** [|Ferrara] **·** [|Florence] **·** [|Assisi] **·** [|Matera] **·** [|Cathedral], [|Torre Civica], [|Piazza Grande, Modena] **·** [|Naples] **·** [|Genoa] **·** [|Mantua] **·** [|Piazza del Duomo, Pisa] **·** [|Pienza] **·** [|Portovenere], [|Cinque Terre] ([|Monterosso al Mare], [|Vernazza], [|Corniglia], [|Manarola], [|Riomaggiore]), [|Palmaria], [|Tino], [|Tinetto] **·** [|Residences of the Royal House of Savoy] **·** [|Rock Drawings in Valcamonica] **·** [|Rome] 1 **·** [|Sabbioneta] **·** [|//Sacri Monti// of Piedmont and Lombardy] **·** [|San Gimignano] **·** [|Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan] **·** [|Val di Noto] ([|Caltagirone], [|Militello in Val di Catania], [|Catania], [|Modica], [|Noto], [|Palazzolo Acreide], [|Ragusa], [|Scicli]) **·** [|Siena] **·** [|Barumini nuraghes] **·** [|Syracuse], [|Necropolis of Pantalica] **·** [|Alberobello] **·** [|Urbino] **·** [|Val d'Orcia] **·** [|Venice] **·** [|Verona] **·** [|Vicenza], [|Palladian Villas of the Veneto] **·** [|Hadrian's Villa] **·** [|Villa d'Este] **·** [|Villa Romana del Casale] || [[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/64px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png width="64" height="43" caption="Flag of Italy" link="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Flag_of_Italy.svg"]] ||
 * 1 Shared with the [|Holy See]. ||  ||
 * 1 Shared with the [|Holy See]. ||  ||